[مجرد عآبر]

المناقشات


المناقشة الاولى ..

‏Because European and Western literature and cultures were produced as a recreation, a revival of the classical
‏cultures ofGreece and Rome


المناقشة الثانية ..

‏Because European and Western cultures have always valued poetry, literature and
‏art, Plato‟s decision has always been difficult to explain


المناقشة الثالثة ..

‏Aristotle defines plot as “the arrangement of the incidents.” He is not talking about
‏the story itself but the way the incidents are presented to the audience, the structure of the play

‏Plot is the order and the arrangement of these incidents in a cause-effect sequence of events
‏According to Aristotle, tragedies where the outcome depends on a tightly
‏constructed cause-and-effect chain of actions are superior to those that depend
‏primarily on the character and personality of the hero/protagonist.


المناقشة الرابعة ..


‏Greek culture was a “living culture” that sprang from people’s everyday life
‏All the Greeks – old and young, aristocrats and commoners
‏literate and illiterate – participated in producing and in consuming this culture
‏In Ancient Rome, Greek culture became books that had no
‏connection to everyday life and to average people.
‏Greek books were written in a language (Greek) that most
‏of the Romans didn’t speak and belonged to an era in the
‏past that Romans had no knowledge of.
‏Only a small, educated minority had the ability to interact
‏with these books.
‏It was a dead culture, past, remote, and with no connections
‏to the daily existence of the majority of the population
‏In Rome, Greek culture was not a living culture anymore
‏It was a “museum” culture. Some aristocrats used it to
‏show off, but it did not inspire the present.


المناقشة الخامسة ..

‏Horace’s hatred of the popular culture of his day was widespread among Latin authors
‏Poetry for Horace and his contemporaries meant written monuments that would land the lucky poet’s name on a library shelf next to the great Greek names.It would grant the poet fame, a nationalistic sense of glory and a presence in the pedagogical curriculum
‏Horace’s poetic practice was not rooted in everyday life, as Greek poetry was.He read and reread the Iliad in search of, as he put it, what was bad, what was good, what was useful, and what was not
‏In the scorn he felt towards the popular culture of his day, the symptom s -were already clear of the rift between “official” and “popular” culture that would divide future European societies


المناقشة السادسة ..


‏The new conceptions of language led in the sixteenth and early seventeenth century to the undermining of Latin as the privileged language of learning. The central tactic in the attack on the monopoly of Latin was the production of grammar books for the vernacular. These demonstrated that vernaculars could be reduced to the same kind of rules as Latin.


المناقشة السابعة ..


‏It literature “makes strange” ordinary perception and ordinary language and
‏invites the reader to explore new forms of perceptions and sensations,
‏and new ways of relating to language



المناقشة الثامنة ..

‏Gennette calls all irregularities in the time of narration: Anachrobies
‏Anachronies happen whenever a narrative stops the chronological order in
‏order to bring events or information from the past (of the time zero) or
‏from the future (of the time zero).
‏Analepsis: The narrator recounts after the fact an event that took
‏place earlier than the moment in which the narrative is stopped.
‏Example (fictitious): I woke up in a good mood this morning. In my
‏mind were memories of my childhood, when I was running in the
‏fields with my friends after school
‏Prolepsis: The narrator anticipates events that will occur after the
‏point in time in which the story has stops.
‏Example (fictitious): How will my travel to Europe affect me? My
‏relationship with my family and friends will never be the same
‏again. This is what will make me later difficult to live with



المناقشة التاسعة ..

An actant, says Greimas, is extrapolation syntactic structure of a narrative. An actant is identified with what assumes syntactic function in the narrative


المناقشة العاشرة ..

‏Roland Barthes questioned the traditional idea that the meaning
‏of the literary text and the production of the literary text should
‏be traced solely to a single author
‏Structuralism and Post structuralism proved that meaning is not
‏fixed by or located in the author’s ‘intention.’
‏Barthes rejected the idea that literature and criticism should rely
‏on “a single self-determining author, in control of his meanings,
‏who fulfills his intentions and only his intentions” (Terry Eagleton)



المناقشة الحادية عشر ..


‏According to Foucault, Barthes had urged critics to realize that
‏they could "do without [the author] and study the work itself
‏This urging, Foucault implies, is not realistic
‏Foucault suggests that critics like Barthes and Derrida never really
‏get rid of the author, but instead merely reassigns the author's
‏powers and privileges to "writing" or to "language itself."


المناقشة الثانية عشر ..

‏Post-structuralism displaces the writer/author and make the
‏reader the primary subject of inquiry (instead of author / writer)
‏They call such displacement: the "destabilizing" or "decentering" of the author
‏Disregarding essentially reading of the content that look for
‏superficial readings or story lines
‏Other sources are examined for meaning (e.g. readers, cultural norms, other literature, etc
‏Such alternative sources promise no consistency, but might
‏provide valuable clues and shed light on unusual corners of the text


المناقشة الثالثة عشر ..

‏For Derrida, language is unreliable There is no pre-discursive reality. Every reality is shaped and accessed by a discourse. “there is nothing outside of the text” (Jacques Derrida, Of Grammatology) Texts always refer to other texts (cf. Fredric Jameson’s The Prison House of Language) Language constructs/shapes the world Note: Derrida has a very broad notion of ‘text’ that includes all types of sign systems




المناقشة الرابعة عشر ..

‏This is one of the most important ideas of karl Marx
‏The idea that history is made of two main forces:
‏The Base: The material conditions of life, economic relations,
‏labor, capital, etc
‏The Superstructure: This is what today is called ideology or
‏consciousness and includes, ideas, religion, politics, history,
‏education, etc
‏Marx said that it is people’s material condition that
‏determines their consciousness
‏In other words, it is people’s economic conditions that
‏determine the ideas and ideologies that they hold
‏Note: Ibn Khaldoun says the same thing in the Muqaddimah


بالتوفيق للجميع ..