[ استفسار ] محاضره الاولى باللغويات محذووفه!!

[غلا حرب]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة ابو خالد4

الي فهمته
ان الجزء الاولى منها محذوف

يعني نبداء نذاكر من عند
the sounds of language

يسلمووووو عالتنبيه

[غلا حرب]

ايووه التعاريف ببدا فيهم بكرا بس نبي اساله العام

[كرامة]

المحاضره الاولى قدنا حفظناها زي اسمنا
نبغى غيرها ....ماهنا شي محذوف لعله يخفف علينا الحمل
والاستعانه بالله وحده..

[m3and]

المحاضره الأولى دسمه وفيها آشياء كثيره

[الشيمااء]

بيجي منها خمس أسئلة أهم محاضرة

[محمد الدرع]

السلام عليكم توكلوا على الله وابداو

انشاء الله سهله

بس يبغالها

وقت الحين من المحاضرة ال7 الى ال10

مترجم

1

LECTURE SUMMARY 7-8-9 &10

 LECTURE- 7-



Morphology: The study of forms’ was originally used in biology.



دراسة أشكال "كانت في الأصل تستخدم في علم الأحياء



Middle of the nineteenth century- describes the type of investigation that analyzes all those basic ‘elements’ used in a language.



What we have been describing as ‘elements’ in the form of a linguistic message are technically known as “morphemes’.

• وصفه بأنه "عناصر" في شكل رسالة لغوية معروفة فنيا اسم

"morphemes.

•

Morphemes

•

But we still can recognize that English word forms such as talks, talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a number of other elements such as -s, -er, -ed and -ing.

• نستطيع أن ندرك أن الأشكال لا تزال الكلمة الإنجليزية مثل المحادثات ، المتكلم

، تحدث ويتحدث يجب أن تتكون من عنصر واحد نقاش ، وعدد من العناصر

الأخرى مثل ليالي ، إيه ، و

ING - ED .

•

The definition of a morpheme is “a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function”.

•

Morpheme "تعريف من وحدة الحد الأدنى للمعنى أو وظيفة نحوية ".

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

Two types of morphemes.  Free morphemes



Morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for example, open and tour.



Morphemes تستطيع ان

تقف في حد ذاتها واحدة من

الكلمات



Bound morphemes



Forms that cannot normally stand alone and are typically attached to another form, exemplified as re-, -ist, -ed, -s.



تعلق عادة النماذج التي لا يمكن

أن يقف وحده وعادة إلى شكل

آخر



All affixes (prefixes and suffixes) in English are bound morphemes.



The free morphemes can generally be identified as the set of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.



When they are used with bound morphemes attached the basic word forms are technically known as stems.  Un - dress - ed care - less - ness



Prefix stem suffix stem suffix suffix



(bound) (free) (bound) (free) (bound) (bound)



Two types of free morphemes.



The first is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that we think of as the words that carry the ‘content’ of the

The

second is what is called functional morphemes. Examples are and,

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messages we convey.



These free morphemes are called lexical morphemes.

but, when, because, on, near, above, in, the, that, it, them.



This set consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns. Because we almost never add new functional morphemes to the language, they are described as a ‘closed’ class of words



هذه المجموعة تتألف في معظمها من الكلمات في اللغة الفنية ، مثل المواد

العطف ، وحروف الجر والضمائر. لأننا أبدا تقريبا إضافة وظيفية جديدة للغة

morphemes

، وصفها بأنها فئة "مغلقة" من الكلمات.



Set of affixes that make up the category of bound morphemes can also be divided into two types.  Derivational morphemes.



Use to make new words or to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem.



استخدم لجعل الكلمات الجديدة أو

لجعل الكلمات من فئة النحوية

المختلفة من جذع



Addition of the derivational morpheme -ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness



Addition of the prefix re- changes the meaning of the word pay when added to it.  Inflectional morphemes.



Used to produce new words in the language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word.



• يستخدم لإنتاج كلمات جديدة في اللغة

وتشير إلى جوانب مهمة للكلمة النحوية.



Used to show if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is a comparative or possessive form.



يستخدم لإظهار إذا كان الكلمة هو

الجمع أو المفرد وإذا كان الفعل

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

إضافة prefix إعادة تغيير معنى

الكلمة تدفع عندما تضاف إليها

الماضي أم لا وإذا كان نموذج المقارنة

أو التملك.



English has only eight inflectional morphemes

(Or ‘inflections’), illustrated below: •Noun

+ -’s, -s : (teacher’s book / teachers) •Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en : (teaches / teaching / played / taken) •Adjective + -est, -er : (younger / youngest)  The difference between derivational and inflectional morphemes is worth emphasizing.  Inflectional morpheme never changes the grammatical category of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives.  Derivational morpheme can change the grammatical category of a word. The verbs teach becomes the noun teacher if we add the derivational morpheme -er.



We treated ‘phones’ as the actual phonetic realization of ‘phonemes’, so we can propose morphs as the actual forms used to realize morphemes.



يعامل phones كما إدراك الصوتية الفعلية "الفونيمات" ويمكن أن نقرأ كما

يقترح الأشكال الفعلية المستخدمة لتحقيق

morphemes .

LECTURE-8-

 We use an asterisk ∗ to indicate that a form is unacceptable or ungrammatical.)



The process of describing the structure of phrases and sentences in such a way that we account for all the

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grammatical sequences in a language and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences is

one way of defining grammar.



عملية تصف بنية العبارات والجمل في هذه بعيدا عن أننا حساب متواليات

جميع النحوية في اللغة واستبعاد جميع متواليات غير قواعدي هي طريقة

واحدة لتحديد النحوي.



Traditional grammar is the description of the structure of phrases and sentences based on established categories used in the analysis of Latin and Greek.



القواعد التقليدية هو وصف لهيكل من العبارات والجمل على أساس الفئات

المحددة المستخدمة في

تحليل اللاتينية واليونانية.



Since there were well-established grammatical descriptions of these languages, it seemed appropriate to adopt the existing categories from these descriptions and apply them in the analysis of ‘newer’ languages such as English.



نظرا لعدم راسخة الأوصاف النحوية من هذه اللغات من المناسب اعتماد

الفئات الموجودة من هذه الأوصاف وتطبيقها في تحليل اللغات "أجدد" مثل

اللغة الإنجليزية.



The parts of speech Noun (N): word such as boy- bicycle - freedom used to describe a person, thing or idea.

Article (Art):

word such as a- an or the used with a noun. Adjective (Adj): word such as happy - strange used with a noun to provide more information. Verb (V): word such as go-drown or know used to describe an action, event or state.

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Conjunction:

word such as and - because used to make connections between words, phrases and sentences Pronoun (Pro): word such as it - them used in place of a noun or noun phrase. Preposition (Prep):

Word such as in - with used with a noun phrase.

Adverb (Adv):

word such as slowly -really used with a verb or adjective to provide more information

Interjections: words that show emotion. They are not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence (Wow/Oh/Uh-oh).



Agreement: the grammatical connection between two parts of a sentence, as in the connection between a subject (Cathy) and the form of a verb (loves chocolate).



الاتفاق : اتصال نحوي بين جزأين كما الحال في العلاقة بين موضوع )كاثي(

وشكل الفعل )يحب الشوكولاته(.



Agreement can be dealt with in terms of number (singular or plural), person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd person), tense, active or passive voice, or gender (male, female, or neuter).  2 ، يمكن التعامل مع الاتفاق من حيث العدد )المفرد أو الجمع( ، الشخص ) 1

3 أو شخص( متوتر والصوت الصريح أو الضمني ، أو الجنس )ذكر ،

- أنثى

-

أو محايد(.



The type of biological distinction used in English is quite different from the more common distinction found in languages that use grammatical gender.

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

نوع من التمييز البيولوجية المستخدمة في اللغة الإنجليزية هي مختلفة تماما

عن التمييز اكثر شيوعا وجدت في اللغات التي تستخدم النحوية بين الجنسين



Whereas natural gender is based on sex (male and female), grammatical gender is based on the type of noun (masculine and feminine) and is not tied to sex.  • بينما يقوم بين الجنسين الطبيعية على الجنس )ذكور وإناث( ويستند النحوية

بين الجنسين على نوع الاسم )المذكر والمؤنث( وغير مرتبطة بالجنس.



In this latter sense, nouns are classified according to their gender class and, typically, articles and adjectives have different forms to ‘agree with’ the gender of the noun.



بهذا المعنى الأخير - تصنف الأسماء وفقا لفئة جنسهم وعادة المقالات

والصفات والأشكال المختلفة ل"نتفق مع" النوع الاجتماعي للاسم



Prescriptive approach: an approach to grammar that has rules for the proper use of the language, traditionally based on Latin grammar, in contrast to the descriptive approach. It is one thing to adopt the grammatical labels (e.g. ‘noun’, ‘verb’) to categorize words in English sentences;  نهج النحوي التي لديها قواعد للاستخدام الصحيح للغة ومقرها تقليديا على

النحو اللاتينية وعلى النقيض من المنهج الوصفي

- هو شيء واحد على اعتماد

التسميات النحوية )مثل 'الاسم' ، 'الفعل'( لتصنيف الكلمات في الجمل

الإنجليزية ؛



This view of grammar as a set of rules for the ‘proper’ use of a language is still to be found today and may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.

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

وجهة النظر من القواعد على أنها مجموعة من القواعد لاستخدام 'الصحيح'

للغة لا يزال يمكن العثور عليها اليوم ويمكن وصفها بأنها أفضل نهج

مفروضة.



Some familiar examples of prescriptive rules for English sentences are:  بعض الأمثلة المألوفة للقواعد إلزامية للجمل الإنجليزية هي :



You must not split an infinitive.



يجب عدم تقسيم an صيغة المصدر



You must not end a sentence with a preposition.  لا يجب انهاء الحكم مع حرف الجر



Descriptive approach: an approach to grammar that is based on a description of the structures actually used in a language, not what should be used, in contrast to the prescriptive approach.



المنهج الوصفي : نهج نحوي يستند على وصف هياكل مستخدمة فعليا في اللغة

وليس ما ينبغي أن تستخدم ، على النقيض من منهج مفروض.



Two famous approaches are:



نهجين شهيرين



structural analysis  immediate constituent analysis = labeled and bracketed sentences Structural analysis Immediate constituent analysis  Investigation of the distribution of grammatical forms in a language.

Constituent analysis

:  A grammatical analysis of how small

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

The method involves the use of ‘test-frames’ that can be sentences with empty slots in them.  For example:

The ------- makes a lot of noise.

I heard a ----------- yesterday.

 A lot of forms that can fit into these slots to produce good grammatical sentences of English (e.g. car, child, donkey, dog, radio).  The label we give to this grammatical category is, of course, ‘noun’.

constituents (or components) go together to form larger constituents in sentences.

 One basic step is determining how words go together to form phrases.  Labeled and bracketed sentences  type of analysis in which constituents in a sentence are marked off by brackets with labels describing each type of constituent



using abbreviated grammatical terms such as  ‘Art’ (= article), ‘N’ (= noun), ‘NP’ (= noun phrase),  ‘V’ (= verb), ‘VP’ (= verb phrase) and ‘S’ (= sentence). LECTURE-9-



Starting from this comparison with mathematic rules, linguists tried to create grammatical rules by which we can produces an infinite set of sentences. Such a set of explicit rules is a generative grammar.

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

بدءا من هذه المقارنة مع قواعد الرياضيات - حاول علماء اللغة لإنشاء قواعد

النحوية التي يمكننا من خلالها تنتج مجموعة لانهائية من الجمل. هذه مجموعة

من القواعد النحوية واضح هو توليدي النحوي.



A generative grammar defines the syntactic structures of a language.



النحوي توليدي يحدد هياكل النحوية للغة



The grammar will generate all the well-formed syntactic structures (e.g. sentences) of the language and will not generate any ill-formed structures.



النحوي تولد كل هياكل النحوية بشكل جيد )مثل الجمل( للغة ، وسوف يتم

إنشاء أي هياكل سوء تشكيلها.



This has been called the ‘all and only’ criterion, that is, all the grammatical sentences and only the grammatical sentences will be produced.



هذا ما يسمى "جميع وفقط" المعيار وسيتم إنتاج كل الجمل النحوية



The grammar will have a finite (i.e. limited) number of rules, but will be capable of generating an infinite number of well-formed structures.



سوف يكون النحوي ) محدودة( عدد محدود من القواعد ولكن لن تكون قادرة

على توليد عدد لانهائي من الهياكل بشكل جيد.

Surface structure Deep structure

The structure of individual sentences after the application of movement rules to deep structure (form).

The underlying structure of sentences as represented by phrase structure rules (meaning).

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:: If we consider the following pair of sentences:



Charlie broke the window. ---- called an active sentence



The window was broken by Charlie.---- a passive sentence



The distinction between them is a difference in their surface structure, that is, the different syntactic forms they have as individual English sentences.  This other ‘underlying’ level, where the basic components (noun phrase + verb + noun phrase) shared by the two sentences can be represented, is called their deep structure.  Structural ambiguity: a situation in which a single phrase or sentence has two (or more) different underlying structures and interpretations. الغموض الإنشائية



Annie whacked a man with an umbrella. This sentence provides an example of structural ambiguity.  Grammar will have to be capable of showing the structural distinction between these underlying representations.  Recursion: the repeated application of a rule in generating structures. Recursive (‘repeatable any number of times’) rules have the capacity to be applied more than once in generating a structure.  التطبيق المتكرر للقاعدة في توليد هياكل. عودي )'تكرار أي عدد من

المرات'( قواعد لديها القدرة على تطبيقها أكثر من مرة في توليد هيكل .



To create a more explicit representation of the hierarchical organization of one structure, we can use a tree diagram.

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

• لإنشاء تمثيل أكثر وضوحا من تنظيم هرمي للهيكل واحد يمكن استخدام

مخطط الشجرة



Phrase structure rules  Phrase structure rules: rules stating that the structure of a phrase of a specific type consists of one or more constituents in a particular order.  قواعد تفيد بأن الهيكل عبارة من نوع معين يتكون من واحد أو أكثر في

ترتيب معين.



Lexical rules: rules stating which words can be used for constituents generated by phrase structure rules.  قواعد يمكن استخدامها للكلمات المكونة القواعد التي تولدها بنية العبارة.



CP in the following way: “a complement phrase rewrites as a complementizer and a sentence”, or CP→C S.  Complement phrase (CP) comes after a verb (V). This means that we are using the CP as part of a verb phrase (VP).  A verb phrase rewrites as a verb and complement phrase”, or VP→V CP  Transformational rules: rules that are used to change or move constituents in structures derived from phrase structure rules.  قواعد تستخدم لتغيير أو نقل الناخبين في هياكل القواعد المستمدة من بنية

العبارة.



We use the symbol ⇒ to indicate that a transformational rule is being used to derive a new structure from the basic structure.

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

نحن نستخدم ⇒ الرمز للإشارة إلى أنه يتم استخدام قاعدة تحويلية

لاستخلاص هيكل جديد من بنية الأساسية.



LECTURE-10-



Conceptual meaning is the basic components of meaning conveyed by the literal use of words.



المكونات الأساسية لنقل المعنى من خلال استخدام الحرفي للكلمة.



Associative meaning is the type of meaning that people might connect with the use of words (e.g. needle = “painful”) that is not part of conceptual meaning.

 نوع من المعنى أن الناس قد ربط مع استخدام الكلمات )مثل إبرة = "مؤلمة"(

التي ليست جزءا من المعنى المفاهيمي.



A small number of semantic roles (also called ‘thematic roles’) for these noun phrases.  Agent Theme

is the semantic role of the noun phrase

identifying the one who performs the action of the verb in an event

(The boy kicked the ball)

is the semantic role of the noun phrase used to

identify the entity involved in or affected by the action of the verb in an event

(The boy kicked the ball)

Instrument Experiencer

is the semantic role of the noun phrase

identifying the entity that is used to perform the action of the verb

(The boy cut the rope with a

is the semantic role of the noun phrase

identifying the entity that has the feeling, perception or state described by the verb

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razor)

(The boy feels sad)

Location Source Goal

is the semantic role of the

noun phrase identifying where an entity is

( The boy is sitting in the classroom)

is the semantic role of the

noun phrase identifying where an entity moves from

(The boy ran from the house)

is the semantic role of the

noun phrase identifying where an entity moves to (The boy walked to the window)



DIFFERENT BETWEEN SYNONYMY & ANTONYMY

Synonymy

Antonymy

is the lexical relation in which two or more words have very closely related meanings

Is the lexical relation in which words have opposite meanings

(“Shallow” is an antonym of “deep”).



DIFFERENT BETWEEN GRADABLE ANTONYMY & NON-GRADABLE ANTONYMY Gradable antonyms,

can be

used in comparative constructions

such as the pair big/small

Non-gradable antonyms (also called ‘complementary pairs’), comparative constructions are not normally used

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

Reversives are antonyms in which the meaning of one is the reverse action of the other( dress/undress, enter/exit, pack/unpack, lengthen/shorten, raise/lower, tie/untie)



المتضادات فيها معنى واحد هو عمل عكس الآخر



Hyponymy is the lexical relation in which the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another (“Daffodil” is a hyponym of “flower”).  Prototype is the most characteristic instance of a category (“Robin” is the prototype of “bird”).  The idea of ‘the characteristic instance’ of a category is known as the prototype. Homophones Homonyms

Are two or more words with different forms and the same pronunciation (e.g. to

–too–two).

Are two words with the same form that are unrelated in meaning (e.g. bank (of a river)

– bank (financial institution)).



Polysemy is a word having two or more related meanings

(Foot, of person, of bed, of mountain).

 Metonymy is a word used in place of another with which it is closely connected in everyday experience (He drank the whole bottle (= the liquid)).  Collocation is a relationship between words that frequently occur together (salt and pepper).

[غلا حرب]

محمد الدرع الف شكر مجتهد ربي يووووفقك

[ترآنيم الغلآ]

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