[ اللغة الانجليزية ] : English department , Level 6 come here sisters:)

[روينا]

بنات عرض البراقمتكس اللي بالايميل مافتح عندي

[hopeful]

ماشاءالله مره تعاون كلن يسأل محد يجاوب

[سر دمعه]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة جسد

بكم الاشتراك في السيمانتك وهل هو مفيد ؟
ابي رد بااسرع وقت :(

انا اشوفه لابأس فيه وشئ احسن من لاشئ وان شاء الله يفيدنا , والاشتراك ب 125

[Roony bnt 7sony]

طيب لمين نعطي الفلوس ؟


ابي اشترك اناا


و ارسلولي الملززممه بلييز

[hopeful]

بنات اللي اختبروا اليوم سيمانتكس ياليت يفيدوننا بطريقة الاسئله الله يجزاكم خير

[pretty]

بنات اللي تعرف شيء
عن اختبار المودرن نوفل
ياليت تساعدنا

[nooni-s]

Girls I found this article about semantics , it summarizes the book

and I am not sure about its credibility

Chapter one: Introduction
Semantics is the technical term used to refer to the study of meaning, and since meaning is a part of language, semantics is a part of linguistics. The term semantics is a recent addition to English language. It has a long history, there are several works can be considered as the study of meaning, but the word semantics does not occur until it was introduced in 1894 in a paper read to the American Philological Association entitled "Reflected meanings, a point in semantics"
The most famous books of semantics is "the meaning of meaning" by C.K. Ogden & I. A. Richards which was published in 1923. Semantics is a controversial subject because since it is dealing with meaning and meaning has not clear definition yet. Ogden and Richards listed 16 different meanings for meaning.
Semantics and Linguistics:
Semantics is a component or level of linguistics of the same kind as phonetics or grammar. Most of the linguists have accepted a linguistic model in which semantics is at one end and phonetics at other, with grammar somewhere in the middle. De Saussure refers semantics as signifier. For example if we take the traffic signs, they are communication with people through sign, for example Red signifying stopping!
Historical Semantics
Great deal of work that has been done on semantics has been a historical kind, the term semantics was first used to refer to the development and change of meaning. Bloom Field noted a number of types of word with their traditional names:
Meat ………..Food
Town………fence
Stove………heated room
There are several reasons behind changes; the most important reason is invention. Apart from scientific study of the change of meaning, it is an obvious fact that people are interested in ETYMPOGY, the discovery of the earlier meanings of words.
Semantics in other disciplines
Semantics is not the only interest of linguists, but it was the interest of psycholinguists, philosophers and anthropologists, but since their approach to semantics is different than linguists and their aims will be different too. Most philosophers suggest that many philosophical problems can be solved by the study of ordinary meaning.
Anthropologists are concerned with language as an essential part of the cultural and behavioral patterns of the people they study.

Chapter Two: The Scope of Semantics
Naming: Language is a communication system which with on the one hand the signifier, on the other the signified. One of the oldest views found in Plato's dialogue "Cratylus" is that the signifier is a word in the language and signified is the object in the real world.
There are many difficulties with this naming view because:
1- It is difficult to extend the theory of naming to include other parts of speech. It includes only nouns.
2- Some nouns do not exist in the world like, unicorn, fairy, and goblin; these are some names of creatures which do not exist in the real world.
3- Abstract nouns don’t have any objects in the real world, like love, nice, hate…etc.
4- There are lots of visible objects in the world while they have one single word. Like Chair.

Concepts: It is one of the sophisticated views of relating objects through the mediation of concepts of mind. According to de Saussure, we realized that linguistic signs consist of signifier and signified, more strictly, a sound image and a concept, both linked by psychological "associative" bond. Both of them are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Ogden suggests the semantic triangle which exists between linguistic items, referent and the object. According this theory there is no direct link between symbols and referent ( language and the world).
Sense and Reference: Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc and the non linguistic world of experience. Sense relates to the complex system of relationship that hold between linguistic elements themselves (mostly words) . It is concerned only intra linguistic relations.
In the old English, this problem was solved because everything has its own gender whether male, female, or neutral. Also there is other relationship between word like father, son, uncle, nephew etc.
Here we have two types of semantics, one that deals with semantic structure and the other deals with meaning in terms of our experience outside language.
The word: Dictionaries appear to concerned with stating the meaning of words and it is reasonable to assume that the word is one of the basic units of semantics. But no all the words have meaning; English grammarian Henry Sweet drew a distinction between "Full" words and "Form" words. Full word like tree, blue, gently and form word like it, the, of, and. The form words have only grammatical functions because these words cannot be stated in isolation but only in relation to other words. The best definition for word is "minimum free form" which is done by Bloomfield.
Ullmann made a distinction between Transparent and Opaque, Transparent words are whose meaning can be determined from the meaning of their parts, Opaque are opposite of Transparent. Chopper and doorman are transparent, but axe and porter are opaque. Also both these two term has degree, for example we can say chopper is chopping meat, but we cannot say screwdriver is drive screw!
Idioms are another case to be studied in semantics because group of words are combined to give one meaning and the meaning cannot predicted from the meaning of the words.
Sentence: The traditional definition of sentence is "The expression of a complete thought" The sentence is essentially a grammatical unit; indeed it is the function of syntax to describe the structure of the sentence and thereby to define it. In English a sentence should minimally consist of Subject and Verb. But sometimes this will not be applied, we can use coming? Instead of are you coming?
Another problem arouses when we are talking about the meaning of sentences because sentences can be translated according to deep or surface meaning. EG I went to bank is ambiguous. We can say that to understand the meaning of sentences we have to know the intonation, stress rhythm loudness etc of sentences.

Chapter Three: Context and Reference:
Linguistic relativity: Parts of difficulty in relating language to external world that arise from the fact that the way that we see the world is to some degree dependent on language we use. Human categorize the objects of our experience with the aid of language. Sapir suggests that the world that we live "is to large extent unconsciously built up on the language habits of the group" His view was expanded by Whorf and become Sapir-Wharf hypothesis. They suggest that we are unaware of the language around us as we are unaware of air. Also he states that there are several words for one thing, for example Eskimo have 4 words for snow and in Arabic there are several words for camel. Human beings do not live in the objective world alone, not alone in the world of social activity as ordinarily understood, but are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. It is quite an illusion to imagine that one adjusts to reality essentially without the use of language and that language is merely an incidental means of solving specific problems of communication or reflection. The fact of the matter is that the 'real world' is to a large extent unconsciously built upon the language habits of the group. No two languages are ever sufficiently similar to be considered as representing the same social reality. The worlds in which different societies live are distinct worlds, not merely the same world with different labels attached... We see and hear and otherwise experience very largely as we do because the language habits of our community predispose certain choices of interpretation.
The exclusion of context: there are lots of linguists who exclude context from the study of semantics because the meanings of some sentences are ambiguous. This ambiguity leads to confusion.
Context of situation: the term context of situation associates with two scholars, first an anthropologist and a linguist. Both were concerned with stating meaning in terms of the context.
Behaviorism: This view was emerged by Bloomfield. He claims that human beings have stimulus and response. He shows the example of Jack and Jill. When Jill is hungry and sees an apple then makes a stimulus through language, after that Jack fetches an apple which is a reaction or response. Throughout this story Bloomfield say that Human beings have Stimulus and Response.
Context, Culture and Style: Every context has its own disciplines, for example the speaker must identify the participants, the persons to whom he is speaking. AT the same time he has to have information about the place. In English we have here and there, that and this according to the position of the things. Also there should be time relationship with the manner of the discourse.
One important thing to be mention in discourse is that, the speaker should have information about the social ranking and relationship of the person to whom he is speaking. Style is another thing to make distinction between people. There are lots of people speaking in different dialects within the same geographical area.
Chapter four: Lexical semantics : Fields and Collocations
Paradigmatic and syntagmatic: This chapter clarifies de Saussure's notion of "value". He states that there is relationship between the words. For example the knight in chess is called knight not because of its size, shape, etc but because of its relationship with other pieces of the board. He makes a distinction between paradigmatic and syntagmatic. The former we can find substitute words or linguistics items in a particular environment, but in latter the relationship contrasts by the virtue of its co-occurrence with similar units. For example in a red and a green door, the green and red are in a paradigmatic relationship but each of them is in syntagmatic relationship.
Color system: we don’t have any evidence to say that Red is more than blue or blue is more than yellow, because colors are not accounted in terms of single dimension. Most of the languages have their own system of color, for example in Philippine language there are only four basic types of color, white, black, red and green. Then among each of the basic colors there are grades for being light or dark. English has 11 colors, white, black, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, purple, pink, orange and grey. That is to say colors have their own ordering system and they are not arranged randomly.
Collocation: Porizg urged that an important relationship can be seen in syntagmatic relationship for example between blond and hair, bite and teeth, bark and dog. Then Firth invented Collocation idea, this is collocation that we don’t need to say white milk because originally milk is white.
Idioms: sometimes we cannot predict the meaning of a phrase or a sentence by the interpretation of the words. For example kick the bucket equals to die! At the same time we cannot give tenses to idioms. At the same time we cannot make idioms passive.



Chapter Five: Lexical semantics: sense relation
Some simple logic: Here the logical and semi logical relations between the words of a sentence is shown. E.G John is a man, here M will stand for "a man" and a stands for John. If we extend this sentence we say "John loves Mary", we will have (L(a,b)). Also if we say "Mary loves John" the formula will be (L(M,J)).
Hyponymy: it involves us in the notion of inclusion in the sense that tulip and rose are included in flower, loin and tiger in animal.
Synonymy: it is used to mean the sameness of meaning. Synonyms are more in English language because it has taken words from two sourses, from Anglo-Saxons and from French, Latin and Greek. The words that have been taken from Anglo-Saxons are considered to be Native words and the words that have been taken from other languages are called foreign words. Mostly the native words are shorter less learned E.G. universe and world.
At the same time we can say that there are no two words that have the same meaning exactly. There are several reasons behind this case; the first one is the availability of different kinds of dialects in English language like fall and autumn, the second reason is the availability of different styles. The third one is using the words according to the situations. The fourth and the last reason is that the meaning of the words is close to each other for example we have the word govern, we can use control, determine, direct require etc.
Antonymy: The term Antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning, the words that are opposite are antonyms. For example Big X Small, High X Low. We have not to forget that Antonyms are gradable for example we have Cold and Hot but between them we have Cold, cool, warm and hot. Lyon introduced the term complementary, because male is complementary of female, married is complementary of single.
Relational opposites: a quite different kind of opposite is found with fairs of words which exhibit the reversal of a relationship between items. For example buy and sell, husband and wife. At the same time we have symmetric relationship which means the same relation holds between the arguments in both directions, so that only one term not two is required. For example cousin, parents, child, grandparents have symmetric relation because their sexes are not clear whether they are male or female.
Polysemy, homonymy: Polysemy means a word may have a set of different meanings, for example word of fight may mean "passing through the air", "power of flying" " air journey" " unit of the Air forces" homonymy means there are several words have the same shape but different meanings. Homography means words have the same shape but different pronunciations and meanings like read. Homophony means words have the same pronunciation but different meaning and shapes like site and sight.
The problem of universal: There is a question always come across in the minds of the readers of this book, whether all the languages of the world have the same semantic features or not? Sapir-Whorf hypothesis suggests that each language may create its own semantics. In the other hand all the languages have the components of male and female, basic colors and kinship relations. There is universal inventory of semantic features, but whether all the languages have the same inventory features or not?
In some languages the linguistic system bears very little resemblance to any of this analysis. Thus in Pawnee the term that we might translate as father is used for all the males whose relationship is traceable through the father, while uncle is used for all males traceable through the mother, and conversely, all the females traceable through the mother are " mother" and all the females traceable though the father are "aunt" the rules for son, daughter, nephew, niece are converse of these.

[آنسه مشاكل]

سؤال شاطح , مقدمه في اللغويات + ادب في عصر النهضه تنزل بكل الترمين ؟

لان فيه بنات اخذوها الترم الاول مو الثاني

جيت عندكم لانكم اخبر ="(

ابي رد سريع الله يجزاكم خير

[nooni-s]

اتوقع الترم الاول نزلوهم كلهم بس تكون الشعب قليله مو زي الترم الثاني ، عاد مدري عنهم الترم الجاي بينزلونها او لا ، لو تروح مجموعه تطالب انهم ينزلونها اكيد بينزلونها لهم ��

[noura92]

Hopeful
ارسلي لي إيميلك