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منتدى كلية الآداب بالدمام منتدى كلية الآداب بالدمام ; مساحة للتعاون و تبادل الخبرات بين طالبات كلية الآداب بالدمام و نقل آخر الأخبار و المستجدات . |
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أدوات الموضوع |
2013- 3- 3 | #141 |
أكـاديـمـي نــشـط
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
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2013- 3- 4 | #142 |
أكـاديـمـي نــشـط
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
The sounds of language
في صفحة 30 Phonetics The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. هنا مهم تعريف الــ phonetics وهو علم دراسة خصائص أصوات اللغة وهو الذي محدد باللون الأزرق Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’. Other areas of study are acoustic phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air, and auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. Voiced and voiceless sounds هنا فقط نقراء الشرح ونعرف أن مخارج الأصوات هما نوعان النوع الأول غير صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عند تمدد واتساع الأوتار الصوتيه ويحدث هذا بسس مرور الهواء من الرئتين بدون أن يتعرضة شي مثل حرف s & f النوع الثاني صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عندما تنكمش الأوتار مع بعضها ويدفعها الهواء الخارج من الرئتين بشكل متكرر وبهذا يحدث اهتزاز متكرر في الأوتار مثل حرف z & v ويوجد طريقه نضع رأس الأصبع على وسط الحنجره وننطق حرف الــ z نلاحظ ارتجاج بالاحبال الصوتيه اما في حرب الـــ s نلاحظ لا يوجد اي ارتجاج بطريقة الأصبع نعرف اي حرف هل هو صوتي ام غير صوتي In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using the fairly complex oral equipment we have. We start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea (or ‘windpipe’) to the larynx. Inside the larynx are your vocal cords, which take two basic positions. 1 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless. 2 When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. The distinction can be felt physically if you place a fingertip gently on the top of your ‘Adam’s apple’ (i.e. that part of your larynx you can feel in your neck below your chin), then produce sounds such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. Because these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Keeping your fingertip in the same position, now make the sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F. Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration. Another trick is to put a finger in each ear, not too far, and produce the voiced sounds (e.g. Z-Z-Z-Z) to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard or felt if you make voiceless sounds (e.g. S-S-S-S) in the same way. Place of articulation اماكن النطق او مكان خروج الصوت فقط قراء لنا العنوان دون التفاصيل ولكن نعرف انه لابد لنا معرفه أماكن النطف بالفم او بالتجويف حتى نعرف كيفية نطق الحروف الساكنه Once the air has passed through the larynx, it comes up and out through the mouth and/or the nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place. What we need is a slice of head. If you ***** a head right down the middle, you will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most اما في صفحة 31 يوجد رسمة لإماكن نطق الحروف وركز الاستاذ على كل منطقة وما هي الحروف التي تنطق في كل مكان . نبداء بالمكان الاول وهو Bilabials These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia). التعريف مهم وركز عليه الأستاذ ومعناه : وهي الأصوات التي تخرج وتتكون من الشفتين العلياء والسفلى وهي اربعه حروف p&b&m&w ونلاحظ بعضها صوتي والأخر غير صوتي مثل p The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are voiced.We can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk and world as a bilabial. Labiodentals These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. ايضا مهم التعريف وهي الاصوات التي تخرج بأستخدام الأسنان العليا والشفة السفليه وهما حرفان فقط حرف الــ f وهو غير صوتي وحرف مثل كلمه fat والحرف الثاني هو حرف الــ v وهو حرف صوتي مثل كلمة vat The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced as [f]. صفحة 23 عنوان Dentals These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. التعريف ايضا مهم جداً وهو الأصوات التي تتكون في طرف اللسان خلف الأسنان الاماميه العليا The initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ], usually referred to as ‘theta’. It is the symbol you would use for the first and last sounds in the phrase three teeth. The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð], usually called ‘eth’. This اي يوجد في بدايه الكلمه مثل thin = ويرمز لها بالرمز θ وايضا يوجد في اخر الكلمه مثل bath ويرمز لها بالرمز ð ولكن لا بد لنا من انه يمكن ان تاتي هذه القاعده حتى في وسط الكلمه مثل كلمه father sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe. The term ‘interdentals’ is sometimes used for these consonants when they are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth. Alveolars These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth. يقصد هي الاصوات التي تتكون من الجزء الأمامي من اللسان مع حد اللثه اما ما في اللون الازرق فهو مهم وركز عليه وهو بمثابه زبدة التعريف اما حدد الاحرف في هذه القاعده فهي سبعه أحرف وهم t&d&s&z&n&l&r نلاحظ كل هذه الاحرف مكانها واحد The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are easy to remember – [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced. It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be [s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? The spelling is misleading because the final sound in this word is voiced and so must be represented by [z]. Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound. Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write. Palatals يقصد بها الحنك If you feel back behind the alveolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the roof of your mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds which are produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (or alveopalatals). Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. The sh sound is represented as [ʃ] and the ch sound is represented as [tʃ]. So, the word shoe-brush begins and ends with the voiceless palatal sound [ʃ] and the word church begins and ends with the other voiceless palatal sound [tʃ]. One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ ], is not very common in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound inwords like treasure and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [d ], which is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name اي يمكن ان تكون الــ ch في البدايه او في النهايه مثل الامثله السابقه Velars وهي الأصوات التي تخرج من خلف اللسان مقابل اللهاه وهما حرفان فقط k&g Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will find a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum. Sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling, this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words ****, kick and coke. The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give is represented by [g]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and, despite the spelling, plague. The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and thereby produce another voiced velar which is represented by the symbol [ŋ], typically referred to as ‘angma’. In written English, this sound is normally spelled as the two letters ‘ng’. So, the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice in the form ringing. Be careful not to be misled by the spelling of a word like bang – it ends with the [ŋ] sound only. There is no [g] sound in this word. Glottals There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound is usually described as a voiceless glottal. The ‘glottis’ is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h]. Charting consonant sounds هنا لم يقراء هذا النص ولكن في صفحه 34 جدول لكل ما ذكرنا ولكن بشكل جدول وطريقه النطق Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant sounds, we can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart. Along the top of the chart are the different labels for places of articulation and, under each, the labels −V (= voiceless) and +V (= voiced). Also included in this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe ‘manner of articulation’ which we will discuss in the Limitations of the chart فقط قراء العنوان وترجمة بأنه أسلوب النطق This chart is far from complete. It contains the majority of consonant sounds used in the basic deion of English pronunciation. There are, however, several differences between this basic set of symbols and the much more comprehensive chart produced by the International Phonetic Association (IPA). The most obvious difference is in the range of sounds covered. We would go to an IPA chart for a deion of the sounds of all languages. It includes, for example, symbols for the velar fricative sound you may have heard in the German pronunciation of the ch part of Bach or Achtung. It also includes sounds made with the back of the tongue and the uvula (at the end of the velum) which represents the r parts of the French pronunciation of rouge and lettre. Uvular sounds also occur in many native languages of north and south America. Other non-English sounds such as pharyngeals (produced in the pharynx) occur in languages such as Arabic. There are many other consonant sounds in the languages of the world. Another way in which the chart is incomplete is the single entry covering r sounds in English. There can be a lot of variation among speakers in the pronunciation of the initial sound in raw and red, the medial sound in very, and the final sound in hour and air. Different symbols (e.g. [ɹ], []) may be encountered in tranions where the different r sounds are distinguished. Finally, in some phonetic deions, there are different symbols for a few of the sounds represented here. These alternatives are [ˇs] for [ʃ], [ˇz] for [ ], [ˇc] for [tʃ], [ ] for [d ] and [y] for [j]. For a fuller discussion of the use of these symbols, see Ladefoged Manner of articulation طريقة أخراج الاصوات : للتفريق بين الاصوات لابد علينا أن نعرف طريقة اخراج او اصدار الاصوات وهي التي توضح المكان الذي يخرج منه الاصوات So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. Such a deion is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives. Stops Of the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all produced by some form of ‘stopping’ of the airstream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly. This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream, is called a stop (or a ‘plosive’).Afull deion of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced stops. التعريف مهم جدا وهو الذي باللون الازرق تعريف الــ Stops Fricatives الاصوات الاحتكاكيه وهي تصدر بسد مجرى الهواء وتركة يندفع من خلال الفتحة الضيقة The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out. The usual pronunciation of the word fish begins and ends with the voiceless fricatives [f] and [ Affricates If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and [d]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [tʃ], and in the second, a voiced affricate [d]. نلاحظ كيفيه نطق الــjeep & cheap كأنه نطق واحد علماً أنهم يختلفون بالسبيلينق Nasals Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [ŋ], the sounds are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals. تسمى بالاصوات الانفيه فهي تصدر عندما نخفض اللهاة ويسمح بمرور الهواء للخروج من خلال الأنف وهي كما حددناها m,n & ŋ Liquids مر الأستاذ عليها بشكل سريع جدا The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge. Glides The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced with the tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants. The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide because of the way it combines with other sounds. In some deions, it is treated as a fricative |
2013- 3- 4 | #143 |
أكـاديـمـي نــشـط
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
The glottal stop and the flap
There are two common terms used to describe ways of pronouncing consonants which are not included in the chart presented earlier. The glottal stop, represented by the symbol [ʔ], occurs when the space between the vocal cords (the glottis) is closed completely (very briefly), then released. Try saying the expression Oh oh. Between the first Oh and the second oh, we typically produce a glottal stop. Some people do it in the middle of Uh-uh (meaning ‘no’), and others put one in place of t when they pronounce Batman quickly. You can also produce a glottal stop if you try to say the words butter or bottle without pronouncing the -tt- part in the middle. This sound is considered to be characteristic of Cockney (London) speech. (Try saying the name Harry Potter as if it didn’t have the H or the tt.) You will also hear glottal stops in the pronunciation of some Scottish speakers and also New Yorkers. If, however, you are an American English speaker who pronounces the word butter in a way that is close to ‘budder’, then you are making a flap. It is represented by [D] or sometimes [ɾ]. This sound is produced by the tongue tip tapping the alveolar ridge briefly. Many American English speakers have a tendency to ‘flap’ the [t] and [d] consonants between vowels so that, in casual speech, the pairs latter and ladder, writer and rider, l and medal do not have distinct middle consonants. They all have flaps. The student who was told about the importance of Plato in class and wrote it in his notes as play-dough was clearly a victim of a misinterpreted flap. This rather lengthy list of the phonetic features of English consonant sounds is not presented as a challenge to your ability to memorize a lot of terminology and symbols. It is presented as an illustration of how a thorough deion of the physical aspects of speech production will allow us to characterize the sounds of spoken English, independently of the vagaries of spelling found in written English. There are, however some sounds that we have not yet investigated. These are the types of sounds known as vowels and diphthongs. Vowels While the consonant sounds are mostly articulated via closure or obstruction in the vocal tract, vowel sounds are produced with a relatively free flowof air. They are all typically voiced. To describe vowel sounds, we consider the way in which the tongue influences the ‘shape’ through which the airflow must pass. To talk about a place of articulation, we think of the space inside the mouth as having a front versus a back and a high versus a low area. Thus, in the pronunciation of heat and hit, we talk about ‘high, front’ vowels because the sound is made with the front part of the tongue in a raised position. In contrast, the vowel sound in hat is produced with the tongue in a lower position and the sound in hot can be described as a ‘low, back’ vowel. The next time you’re facing the bathroom mirror, try saying the words heat, hit, hat, hot. For the first two, your mouth will stay fairly closed, but for the last two, your tongue will move lower and cause your mouth to open wider. (You may also notice, the next time you’re getting some, that the sounds of relaxation and pleasure typically contain lower vowels.) The terminology for describing vowel sounds in English (e.g. ‘high front’) is usually based on their position in a chart, like the one shown here, which provides a means of classifying the most common vowel sounds. Following the chart is a list of the sounds with some examples of familiar words that, for a lot of American English speakers, most of the time, contain those sounds. The list of examples goes from a high front vowel through to a low back vowel and ends with three diphthongs. * هذه القاعدة ركز عليها الأستاذ كثيراُ وراح اختصر كل الكلام اللي مكتوب فوق بأن في أسفل صفحه 38 يوجد كلمات ثم حرف بين قوسين فمضلا نأخذ الاول eat, key, see = i الحرف i معناته كأني انطق الكلمه بهذا الحرف فمثلا see تكتب هكذا /sin/ وهكذا في بقية الكلمات ومهم جداُ ان نعرف كيف تكتب بأستخدام هذه الطريقه وتوجد كل كلمه في القاموس طريقه كتابة الاصوات الحركيه Diphthongs The last three symbols in the list above contain two sounds. These ‘combined’ vowel sounds are called diphthongs. الاصوات المركبه من صوتين حركيين , وهي تبداء بصوت حركي وتنتهي بصوت منزلق اخر Note that in each case they begin with a vowel sound and end with the glides [j] or [w]. In pronouncing the majority of single vowel sounds, our vocal organs assume one position (very briefly), but in pronouncing diphthongs, we move from one vocalic position to another as we produce the sound. This process of diphthongization can actually happen with a wide range of vowel sounds and is more common in some varieties of English (e.g. Southern British) than in others. Most American English speakers pronounce the word say as [sej], with a diphthong rather than a single vowel. You will also hear common pronouns such as we [wij] and they [ðej] diphthongized. If you try to pronounce the consonants and diphthongs in the following tranion, you should recognize a traditional speech-training exercise: [haw naw brawn kaw]. Subtle individual variation لم يقرائها ابد ليست مهمه Vowel sounds are notorious for varying between one variety of English and the next, often being a key element in what we recognize as different accents. So, you may find that some of the words offered in the earlier lists as examples are not spoken in your neighborhood with the vowel sounds exactly as listed. Also, some of the sound distinctions shown here may not even be used regularly in your own speech. It may be, for example, that you make no distinction between the vowels in the words caught and cot and use [a] in both. In some deions, the vowel sound in cot is represented as [ɑ]. Or, you may not make a significant distinction between the central vowels [ə] and []. If not, then just use the symbol [ə], called ‘schwa’. In fact, in casual speech, we all use schwa more than any other single sound. It is the unstressed vowel (underlined) in the everyday use of words such as afford, collapse, oven, photograph, wanted, and in those very common words a and the. There are many other variations in the actual physical articulation of the sounds we have considered here. The more we focus on the subtle differences of the actual articulation of each sound, the more likely we are to find ourselves describing the pronunciation of small groups or even individual speakers. Such subtle differences enable us to identify individual voices and recognize people we know as soon as they speak. But those differences don’t help us understand how we are able to work out what total strangers with unfamiliar voices are saying. We are clearly able to disregard all the subtle individual variation in the phonetic detail of voices and recognize each underlying sound type as part of a word with a particular meaning. To make sense of how we do that, الدرس الخامس وهو من أهم الدروس وسوف اذكر كل ما هو مهم في نهاية التقرير صفحة 43 The sound patterns of language In the preceding chapter, we investigated the physical production of speech sounds in terms of the articulatory mechanisms of the human vocal tract. That investigationwas possible because of some rather amazing facts about the nature of language. When we considered the human vocal tract, we didn’t have to specify whether we were talking about a fairly large person, over six feet tall, weighing over 200 pounds, or about a rather small person, about five feet tall, weighing less than 100 pounds. Yet those two physically different individuals would inevitably have physically different vocal tracts, in terms of size and shape. In a sense, every individual has a physically different vocal tract. Consequently, in purely physical terms, every individual will pronounce sounds differently. There are, then, potentially millions of physically different ways of saying the simple word me. In addition, each individual will not pronounce the word me in a physically identical manner on every occasion. Obvious differences occur when that individual is shouting, is suffering from a bad cold or is asking for a sixth martini. Given this vast range of potential differences in the actual physical production of a speech sound, how do we manage consistently to recognize all those versions of me as the form [mi], and not [ni] or [si] or [ma] or [mo] or something else entirely? The كله كلام حشو Phonology Phonology is essentially the deion of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. It is, in effect, based on a theory of what every speaker of a language unconsciously knows about the sound patterns of that language. Because of this theoretical status, phonology is concerned with the abstract مهم جداُ تعريف الــ Phonology فقط علينا بالتعريف اما الذي يوجد في صفحه 44 على الصفحه مو مهم Phonemes Each one of these meaning-distinguishing sounds in a language is described as a phoneme. When we considered the basis of alphabetic writing in chapter 3, we were actually working with the concept of the phoneme as the single sound type which came to be represented by a single written symbol. It is in this sense that the phoneme /t/ is described as a sound type, of which all the different spoken versions of [t] are tokens. Note that slash marks are conventionally used to indicate a phoneme, /t/, an abstract segment, as opposed to the square brackets, as in [t], used for each phonetic or physically produced segment. An essential property of a phoneme is that it functions contrastively.We know there are two phonemes /f/ and /v/ in English because they are the only basis of the contrast in meaning between the words fat and vat, or fine and vine. This contrastive property is the basic operational test for determining the phonemes that exist in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the two sounds represent different phonemes. The basic phonemes of English are listed in the consonant and vowel charts in chapter 4. The technical terms used in creating those charts can be considered ‘features’ that distinguish each phoneme from the next. If the feature is present, we mark it with a plus sign (+) and if it’s not present, we use a minus sign (−). Thus /p/ التعريف مهم جدا وركز عليها اكثر من مره اما في اعلى صفحه 45 غير مهمه Phones and allophones While the phoneme is the abstract unit or sound type (‘in the mind’), there are many different versions of that sound type regularly produced in actual speech (‘in the mouth’).We can describe those different versions as phones. Phones are phonetic units and appear in square brackets. When we have a group of several phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme, we add the prefix ‘allo-’ (=one of a closely related set) and refer to them as allophones of that phoneme. For example, the [t] sound in the word tar is normally pronounced with a stronger puff of air than is present in the [t] sound in the word star. If you put the back of your hand in front of your mouth as you say tar, then star, you should be able to feel some physical evidence of aspiration (the puff of air) accompanying the [t] sound at the beginning of tar (but not in star). This aspirated version is represented more precisely as [th]. That’s one phone. In the last chapter, we noted that the [t] sound between vowels in a word like writer often becomes a flap, which we can represent as [D]. That’s another phone. In the pronunciation of a word like eighth (/etθ/), the influence of the final dental [θ] sound causes a dental articulation of the [t] sound. This can be represented more precisely as [t]. That’s yet another phone. There are even more variations of this sound which, like [th], [D], and [t], can be represented in a more precise way in a detailed, or narrow phonetic tranion. Because these variations are all part of one set of phones, they are typically referred to as allophones of the phoneme /t/. The crucial distinction between phonemes and allophones is that substituting one phoneme for another will result in a word with a different meaning (as well as a different pronunciation), but substituting allophones only results in a different (and perhaps unusual) pronunciation of the same word. في صفحه 46Let’s look at another quick example, using a vowel sound. In English, there is a subtle difference in the pronunciation of /i/ in the words seed and seen. In the second word, the effect of the nasal consonant [n] makes the [i] sound nasalized. We can represent this nasalization with a small mark (˜), called ‘tilde’, over the symbol [˜i] in a narrow phonetic tranion. So, there are at least two phones, [i] and [˜i], used to realize the single phoneme. They are both allophones of /i/ in English. It is possible, of course, for two languages to have the same pair of phonetic segments, but to treat them differently. In English, the effect of nasalization on a vowel is treated as allophonic variation because the nasalized version is not meaningfully contrastive. Whether we say [sin] or [s˜in], people will only recognize one word seen. In French, however, the pronunciation [mε] is used for one word mets (‘dish’) and the pronunciation [m˜ ε] is used for another word main (‘hand’). Also, [so] for the word seau (‘pail’) contrasts with [s˜o] for the word son (‘sound’). Clearly, in these cases, the distinction is phonemic. فقط نعرف كيف تكتب رموزها Minimal pairs and sets Phonemic distinctions in a language can be tested via pairs and sets of words. When two words such as pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, the two words are described as a minimal pair. More accurately, they would be classified as a minimal pair in the phonology of English. (Arabic, for example, does not have this contrast between /p/ and /b/.) Other examples of English minimal pairs are fan–van, bet–bat, site–side. Such pairs have traditionally been used in the teaching and testing of English as a second or foreign language to help students develop the ability to understand the contrast in meaning based on the minimal sound contrast. When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position in the word), then we have a minimal set. For example, one minimal set based on the vowel phonemes of English could include feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot, and another minimal set based on consonant phonemes could have big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig. بختصار مجموعات وثنائيات المفردات هي كلمتين مثل bat & pat متطابقتين في الشكل باستثناء الاختلاف في فوينم واحد يعني في حرف واحد فقط المجموعات : هي مجموعة كلمات تختلف بتغير فوينم واحد في نفس الوضع مثل : feat & fit & fat & fate & foot وغيرها Phonotactics This type of exercise involving minimal sets also allows us to see that there are definite patterns in the types of sound combinations permitted in a language. In English, the minimal set we have just listed does not include forms such as lig or vig. According to the dictionary, these are not English words, but they could be viewed as possible English words. That is, our phonological knowledge of المطلوب التعريف ويضا له صيغة تعريف أخرى وهي Phonotactics = constraints on the permissible combination of sounds in a language Syllables and clusters A syllable must contain a vowel (or vowel-like) sound. The most common type of syllable in language also has a consonant (C) before the vowel (V) and is typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset (one or more consonants) and the rhyme. The rhyme (sometimes written as ‘rime’) consists of a vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any following consonant(s), described as the coda. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are known as ‘open’ syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called ‘closed’ syllables. The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not (CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC), I (V), am (VC) is shown in the accompanying diagram. as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. Note that liquids (/l/, /r/) and a glide (/w/) are being used in second position. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in thewords stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The phonotactics of these larger onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must always be /s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and then one of these liquids or glides (/l/, /r/, /w/). You can check if this deion is adequate for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square. Does the deion also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? How about /εk-sklejm/? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being described, not the beginning of the word. It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed, the syllable structure of many languages (e.g. Japanese) is predominantly CV. It is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters are frequently reduced in casual conversational speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of co-articulation effects. اللي في الازرق يقول اذا اتت ccc ثلاثه مرات لابد من الكلمه ان تبداء بحرف s ملاحظه الــ c قبل الــ v تكون onset الــ c بعد الـــ v تكون coda Co-articulation effects لم يقرائها حتى ليست مهمه In much of the preceding discussion, we have been describing speech sounds in syllables and words as if they are always pronounced carefully and deliberately, almost in slow motion. Speech isn’t normally like that. Mostly our talk is fast and spontaneous, and it requires our articulators to move from one sound to the next without stopping. The process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next sound is called co-articulation. There are two well-known co-articulation effects, described as assimilation and elision. Assimilation ايضاً لم يقرئها وليست مهمه When two sound segments occur in sequence and some aspect of one segment is taken or ‘copied’ by the other, the process is known as assimilation. If we think of the physical production of speech,we realize that this regular process happens simply because it’s quicker, easier and more efficient for our articulators as they do their job. In isolation, we would typically pronounce [] and [æ] without any nasal quality at all. However, when we say words like pin and pan in everyday speech, the anticipation of forming the final nasal consonant will make it easier to go into the nasalized articulation in advance and consequently the vowel sounds in these words will be, in more precise tranion, [˜] and [æ˜]. This is a very regular feature of English speakers’ pronunciation. It is so regular, in fact, that a phonological rule can be stated in the following way: “Any vowel becomes nasal whenever it immediately precedes a nasal.” This type of assimilation process occurs in a variety of different contexts. By itself, the word can may be pronounced as [kæn], but, when we say I can go, the influence of the following velar [g] will almost certainly make the preceding nasal sound come out as [ŋ] (the velar nasal) rather than [n] (the alveolar nasal). The most commonly observed conversational version of the phrase is [ajkəŋgo]. Notice that the vowel in can has also changed to schwa [ə] from the isolatedword version [æ]. In many words spoken carefully, the vowel receives stress, but in the course of ordinary everyday talk, that vowel may no longer receive any stress and naturally reduce to schwa. We may, for example, pronounce and as [ænd] by itself, but in the normal use of the phrase you and me, we usually say [ən], as in [yuənmi]. Elision ايضا لم يقرئها In the last example, illustrating the normal pronunciation of you and me, the [d] sound of the word and was not included in the tranion. That’s because it isn’t usually pronounced in this phrase. In the environment of a preceding nasal [n] and a following nasal [m], we simply don’t devote speech energy to including the stop sound [d]. This isn’t laziness, it’s efficiency. There is also typically no [d] sound included in the everyday pronunciation of a word like friendship [frεnʃp]. This process of not pronouncing a sound segment that might be present in the deliberately careful pronunciation of a word in isolation is described as elision. In consonant clusters, especially in coda position, /t/ is a common casualty in this process, as in the typical pronunciation [æspεks] for aspects, or in [himəsbi] for the phrase he must be.We can, of course, slowly and deliberately pronounce each part of the phrase we asked him, but the process of elision in casual conversation is likely to produce [wiæstəm]. Vowels also disappear, as in [εvri] for every, [ntrst] for interest, [kæbnət] for cabinet, and [spowz] for suppose. Normal speech ايضا ليست مهمهThese two processes of assimilation and elision occur in everyone’s normal speech and should not be regarded as some type of sloppiness or laziness in speaking. In fact, consistently avoiding the regular patterns of assimilation and elision used in a language would result in extremely artificial-sounding talk. The point of investigating these phonological processes is not to arrive at a set of rules about how a language should be pronounced, but to try to come to an understanding of the regularities and patterns which underlie the actual use of sounds in language. يتبع لطول التقرير |
2013- 3- 4 | #144 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
The sounds of language
في صفحة 30 Phonetics The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is called phonetics. هنا مهم تعريف الــ phonetics وهو علم دراسة خصائص أصوات اللغة وهو الذي محدد باللون الأزرق Our main interest will be in articulatory phonetics, which is the study of how speech sounds are made, or ‘articulated’. Other areas of study are acoustic phonetics, which deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air, and auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. Voiced and voiceless sounds هنا فقط نقراء الشرح ونعرف أن مخارج الأصوات هما نوعان النوع الأول غير صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عند تمدد واتساع الأوتار الصوتيه ويحدث هذا بسس مرور الهواء من الرئتين بدون أن يتعرضة شي مثل حرف s & f النوع الثاني صوتيه : وهي الأصوات التي تصدر عندما تنكمش الأوتار مع بعضها ويدفعها الهواء الخارج من الرئتين بشكل متكرر وبهذا يحدث اهتزاز متكرر في الأوتار مثل حرف z & v ويوجد طريقه نضع رأس الأصبع على وسط الحنجره وننطق حرف الــ z نلاحظ ارتجاج بالاحبال الصوتيه اما في حرب الـــ s نلاحظ لا يوجد اي ارتجاج بطريقة الأصبع نعرف اي حرف هل هو صوتي ام غير صوتي In articulatory phonetics, we investigate how speech sounds are produced using the fairly complex oral equipment we have. We start with the air pushed out by the lungs up through the trachea (or ‘windpipe’) to the larynx. Inside the larynx are your vocal cords, which take two basic positions. 1 When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiceless. 2 When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are described as voiced. The distinction can be felt physically if you place a fingertip gently on the top of your ‘Adam’s apple’ (i.e. that part of your larynx you can feel in your neck below your chin), then produce sounds such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. Because these are voiced sounds, you should be able to feel some vibration. Keeping your fingertip in the same position, now make the sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F. Because these are voiceless sounds, there should be no vibration. Another trick is to put a finger in each ear, not too far, and produce the voiced sounds (e.g. Z-Z-Z-Z) to hear and feel some vibration, whereas no vibration will be heard or felt if you make voiceless sounds (e.g. S-S-S-S) in the same way. Place of articulation اماكن النطق او مكان خروج الصوت فقط قراء لنا العنوان دون التفاصيل ولكن نعرف انه لابد لنا معرفه أماكن النطف بالفم او بالتجويف حتى نعرف كيفية نطق الحروف الساكنه Once the air has passed through the larynx, it comes up and out through the mouth and/or the nose. Most consonant sounds are produced by using the tongue and other parts of the mouth to constrict, in some way, the shape of the oral cavity through which the air is passing. The terms used to describe many sounds are those which denote the place of articulation of the sound: that is, the location inside the mouth at which the constriction takes place. What we need is a slice of head. If you ***** a head right down the middle, you will be able to see which parts of the oral cavity are crucially involved in speech production. To describe the place of articulation of most اما في صفحة 31 يوجد رسمة لإماكن نطق الحروف وركز الاستاذ على كل منطقة وما هي الحروف التي تنطق في كل مكان . نبداء بالمكان الاول وهو Bilabials These are sounds formed using both (= bi) upper and lower lips (= labia). التعريف مهم وركز عليه الأستاذ ومعناه : وهي الأصوات التي تخرج وتتكون من الشفتين العلياء والسفلى وهي اربعه حروف p&b&m&w ونلاحظ بعضها صوتي والأخر غير صوتي مثل p The initial sounds in the words pat, bat and mat are all bilabials. They are represented by the symbols [p], which is voiceless, and [b] and [m], which are voiced.We can also describe the [w] sound found at the beginning of way, walk and world as a bilabial. Labiodentals These are sounds formed with the upper teeth and the lower lip. ايضا مهم التعريف وهي الاصوات التي تخرج بأستخدام الأسنان العليا والشفة السفليه وهما حرفان فقط حرف الــ f وهو غير صوتي وحرف مثل كلمه fat والحرف الثاني هو حرف الــ v وهو حرف صوتي مثل كلمة vat The initial sounds of the words fat and vat and the final sounds in the words safe and save are labiodentals. They are represented by the symbols [f], which is voiceless, and [v], which is voiced. Notice that the final sound in the word cough, and the initial sound in photo, despite the spelling differences, are both pronounced as [f]. صفحة 23 عنوان Dentals These sounds are formed with the tongue tip behind the upper front teeth. التعريف ايضا مهم جداً وهو الأصوات التي تتكون في طرف اللسان خلف الأسنان الاماميه العليا The initial sound of thin and the final sound of bath are both voiceless dentals. The symbol used for this sound is [θ], usually referred to as ‘theta’. It is the symbol you would use for the first and last sounds in the phrase three teeth. The voiced dental is represented by the symbol [ð], usually called ‘eth’. This اي يوجد في بدايه الكلمه مثل thin = ويرمز لها بالرمز θ وايضا يوجد في اخر الكلمه مثل bath ويرمز لها بالرمز ð ولكن لا بد لنا من انه يمكن ان تاتي هذه القاعده حتى في وسط الكلمه مثل كلمه father sound is found in the pronunciation of the initial sound of common words like the, there, then and thus. It is also the middle consonant sound in feather and the final sound of bathe. The term ‘interdentals’ is sometimes used for these consonants when they are pronounced with the tongue tip between (= inter) the upper and lower teeth. Alveolars These are sounds formed with the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge, which is the rough, bony ridge immediately behind and above the upper teeth. يقصد هي الاصوات التي تتكون من الجزء الأمامي من اللسان مع حد اللثه اما ما في اللون الازرق فهو مهم وركز عليه وهو بمثابه زبدة التعريف اما حدد الاحرف في هذه القاعده فهي سبعه أحرف وهم t&d&s&z&n&l&r نلاحظ كل هذه الاحرف مكانها واحد The initial sounds in top, dip, sit, zoo and nut are all alveolars. The symbols for these sounds are easy to remember – [t], [d], [s], [z], [n]. Of these, [t] and [s] are voiceless whereas [d], [z] and [n] are voiced. It may be clear that the final sounds of the words bus and buzz have to be [s] and [z] respectively, but what about the final sound of the word raise? The spelling is misleading because the final sound in this word is voiced and so must be represented by [z]. Notice also that despite the different spelling of knot and not, both of these words are pronounced with [n] as the initial sound. Other alveolars are the [l] sound found at the beginning of words such as lap and lit, and the [r] sound at the beginning of right and write. Palatals يقصد بها الحنك If you feel back behind the alveolar ridge, you should find a hard part in the roof of your mouth. This is called the hard palate or just the palate. Sounds which are produced with the tongue and the palate are called palatals (or alveopalatals). Examples of palatals are the initial sounds in the words shout and child, which are both voiceless. The sh sound is represented as [ʃ] and the ch sound is represented as [tʃ]. So, the word shoe-brush begins and ends with the voiceless palatal sound [ʃ] and the word church begins and ends with the other voiceless palatal sound [tʃ]. One of the voiced palatals, represented by the symbol [ ], is not very common in English, but can be found as the middle consonant sound inwords like treasure and pleasure, or the final sound in rouge. The other voiced palatal is [d ], which is the initial sound in words like joke and gem. The word judge and the name اي يمكن ان تكون الــ ch في البدايه او في النهايه مثل الامثله السابقه Velars وهي الأصوات التي تخرج من خلف اللسان مقابل اللهاه وهما حرفان فقط k&g Even further back in the roof of the mouth, beyond the hard palate, you will find a soft area, which is called the soft palate, or the velum. Sounds produced with the back of the tongue against the velum are called velars. There is a voiceless velar sound, represented by the symbol [k], which occurs not only in kid and kill, but is also the initial sound in car and cold. Despite the variety in spelling, this [k] sound is both the initial and final sound in the words ****, kick and coke. The voiced velar sound heard at the beginning of words like go, gun and give is represented by [g]. This is also the final sound in words like bag, mug and, despite the spelling, plague. The velum can be lowered to allow air to flow through the nasal cavity and thereby produce another voiced velar which is represented by the symbol [ŋ], typically referred to as ‘angma’. In written English, this sound is normally spelled as the two letters ‘ng’. So, the [ŋ] sound is at the end of sing, sang and despite the spelling, tongue. It occurs twice in the form ringing. Be careful not to be misled by the spelling of a word like bang – it ends with the [ŋ] sound only. There is no [g] sound in this word. Glottals There is one sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first sound in who and whose. This sound is usually described as a voiceless glottal. The ‘glottis’ is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipulation of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is that represented by [h]. Charting consonant sounds هنا لم يقراء هذا النص ولكن في صفحه 34 جدول لكل ما ذكرنا ولكن بشكل جدول وطريقه النطق Having described in some detail the place of articulation of English consonant sounds, we can summarize the basic information in the accompanying chart. Along the top of the chart are the different labels for places of articulation and, under each, the labels −V (= voiceless) and +V (= voiced). Also included in this chart, on the left-hand side, is a set of terms used to describe ‘manner of articulation’ which we will discuss in the Limitations of the chart فقط قراء العنوان وترجمة بأنه أسلوب النطق This chart is far from complete. It contains the majority of consonant sounds used in the basic deion of English pronunciation. There are, however, several differences between this basic set of symbols and the much more comprehensive chart produced by the International Phonetic Association (IPA). The most obvious difference is in the range of sounds covered. We would go to an IPA chart for a deion of the sounds of all languages. It includes, for example, symbols for the velar fricative sound you may have heard in the German pronunciation of the ch part of Bach or Achtung. It also includes sounds made with the back of the tongue and the uvula (at the end of the velum) which represents the r parts of the French pronunciation of rouge and lettre. Uvular sounds also occur in many native languages of north and south America. Other non-English sounds such as pharyngeals (produced in the pharynx) occur in languages such as Arabic. There are many other consonant sounds in the languages of the world. Another way in which the chart is incomplete is the single entry covering r sounds in English. There can be a lot of variation among speakers in the pronunciation of the initial sound in raw and red, the medial sound in very, and the final sound in hour and air. Different symbols (e.g. [ɹ], []) may be encountered in tranions where the different r sounds are distinguished. Finally, in some phonetic deions, there are different symbols for a few of the sounds represented here. These alternatives are [ˇs] for [ʃ], [ˇz] for [ ], [ˇc] for [tʃ], [ ] for [d ] and [y] for [j]. For a fuller discussion of the use of these symbols, see Ladefoged Manner of articulation طريقة أخراج الاصوات : للتفريق بين الاصوات لابد علينا أن نعرف طريقة اخراج او اصدار الاصوات وهي التي توضح المكان الذي يخرج منه الاصوات So far, we have concentrated on describing consonant sounds in terms of where they are articulated. We can also describe the same sounds in terms of how they are articulated. Such a deion is necessary if we want to be able to differentiate between some sounds which, in the preceding discussion, we have placed in the same category. For example, we can say that [t] and [s] are both voiceless alveolar sounds. How do they differ? They differ in their manner of articulation, that is, in the way they are pronounced. The [t] sound is one of a set of sounds called stops and the [s] sound is one of a set called fricatives. Stops Of the sounds we have already mentioned, the set [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all produced by some form of ‘stopping’ of the airstream (very briefly) then letting it go abruptly. This type of consonant sound, resulting from a blocking or stopping effect on the airstream, is called a stop (or a ‘plosive’).Afull deion of the [t] sound at the beginning of a word like ten is as a voiceless alveolar stop. In some discussions, only the manner of articulation is mentioned, as when it is said that the word bed, for example, begins and ends with voiced stops. التعريف مهم جدا وهو الذي باللون الازرق تعريف الــ Stops Fricatives الاصوات الاحتكاكيه وهي تصدر بسد مجرى الهواء وتركة يندفع من خلال الفتحة الضيقة The manner of articulation used in producing the set of sounds [f], [v], [θ], [ð], [s], [z], [ʃ], [] involves almost blocking the airstream and having the air push through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed through, a type of friction is produced and the resulting sounds are called fricatives. If you put your open hand in front of your mouth when making these sounds, [f] and [s] in particular, you should be able to feel the stream of air being pushed out. The usual pronunciation of the word fish begins and ends with the voiceless fricatives [f] and [ Affricates If you combine a brief stopping of the airstream with an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and [d]. These are called affricates and occur at the beginning of the words cheap and jeep. In the first of these, there is a voiceless affricate [tʃ], and in the second, a voiced affricate [d]. نلاحظ كيفيه نطق الــjeep & cheap كأنه نطق واحد علماً أنهم يختلفون بالسبيلينق Nasals Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing airflow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce [m], [n], and [ŋ], the sounds are described as nasals. These three sounds are all voiced. The words morning, knitting and name begin and end with nasals. تسمى بالاصوات الانفيه فهي تصدر عندما نخفض اللهاة ويسمح بمرور الهواء للخروج من خلال الأنف وهي كما حددناها m,n & ŋ Liquids مر الأستاذ عليها بشكل سريع جدا The initial sounds in led and red are described as liquids. They are both voiced. The [l] sound is called a lateral liquid and is formed by letting the airstream flow around the sides of the tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the middle of the alveolar ridge. The [r] sound at the beginning of red is formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the alveolar ridge. Glides The sounds [w] and [j] are described as glides. They are both voiced and occur at the beginning of we, wet, you and yes. These sounds are typically produced with the tongue in motion (or ‘gliding’) to or from the position of a vowel and are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants. The sound [h], as in Hi or hello, is voiceless and can be classified as a glide because of the way it combines with other sounds. In some deions, it is treated as a fricative |
2013- 3- 4 | #145 |
أكـاديـمـي نــشـط
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
طالبات د.أميمه مغربي
هنا اسم قناتها ف اليوتيوب OmaymaAlMughrabi وهنا موقعها للنغوستيكس https://sites.google.com/site/dromaymaacademic/ مرو عليه راح يفيدكم |
التعديل الأخير تم بواسطة روان الحربي ; 2013- 3- 4 الساعة 05:49 PM |
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2013- 3- 4 | #146 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
AL-anood sh
الله يجزاك الجنننننه :"( ماتدرين قد ايش انبسطت يوم شفت الشرح مرره شكرا واتمنى كل ما اخذنا جزئية تحطين شرحها اذا مافي كلافة بس ابي اعرف اذا الجزئية الي حطيتيها بس هي الي نذاكرها ولا في شي ثاني؟؟ وشككرا مره ثانية روان الحربي مرره شكرا حبيبتي |
2013- 3- 5 | #147 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
بنات بليز ممكن تحطون الاوراق اللي عطتنا اياهم استاذه شموخ الفياض بلييييييييييييييز لان ماعندي
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2013- 3- 5 | #148 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
مساء الخير بنااات كيفكم
بنات بلييييييييييييييز ابغى محاضرة الشعر حقت يوم السبت مع د منيره بليييييزز كنت مضطره اغيب شكرا مقدما وموفقاات |
2013- 3- 5 | #149 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
هذا بحثت عنها في النت وعجبني واستفدت منها وحبيت افيدكم
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2013- 3- 5 | #150 |
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رد: تجمع مستوى رابع ...حياكم الله
وياكك يارب
الله يوفقنا ونجيب اعلى الدرجات انشاء الله, بس دكتوره اميمه تقول مادتنا تعتمد على التعاريف والامثله نحفظها مهمه هذا اللي اعرفه عزيزتي |
مواقع النشر (المفضلة) |
الكلمات الدلالية (Tags) |
مستوى رابع انجليزي |
الذين يشاهدون محتوى الموضوع الآن : 1 ( الأعضاء 0 والزوار 1) | |
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المواضيع المتشابهه | ||||
الموضوع | كاتب الموضوع | المنتدى | مشاركات | آخر مشاركة |
آحم آحم الي ياخذ بريك يبي يريح من المذاكره يخش هنا........ | مـشـع ـآب | ملتقى المواضيع العامة | 5 | 2012- 12- 29 06:02 PM |
اسئلة فقه | رايه11 | المستوى الأول - الدراسات الاسلامية وعلم اجتماع | 6 | 2012- 12- 29 08:49 AM |
لو سمحتم ممكن مساعدة؟؟؟ | آهاتكم | إدارة أعمال 5 | 7 | 2012- 12- 24 09:14 AM |
§¤~^~¤§¤~^~¤ مناقشه .. فقه السيره ....¤~^~¤§¤~^~¤§ ..!! | verymoon*14 | مواد مشتركة - ارشيف تربية خاصة المستوى 7 | 53 | 2012- 12- 23 10:41 PM |
اسئلة فقة السيرة من اعداد ابو جراح الظفيري | أسيل المدينه | إدارة أعمال 5 | 4 | 2012- 12- 23 06:00 PM |