[ اللغة الانجليزية ] : ~||Last semester of Senior Year ||~

[lays]

دراما مع مها سلام عادي اعطيها الاربعا ولا حددت كل قروب بوقت محاظرته لانه مراا صعب وللحين ما خلصت

[dready days]

ذكروني ايش واجب الترجمة لا هنتو

[أخت أخوها]

8

لازم تسليم بحث الدراما بنفس اليوم
وكل ماتاخرتي تنقصي درجات

[dready days]

ذكروني ايش واجب الترجمة لا هنتو ضررررررررررررررررررررروري يرحم والديكم ضيعت الميموري حقتي شكل فيها فايروس

[Maybe Not]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة maybe not

بنات الدرآما مع الدكتوره بتول يوم الأربعآء ..

للي تسأل بدينا بالمسرحيه وخذنا نص الأكت الأول تقريبآ ..
وخذت حضور بالمحاضرتين ..


بنات وش قالت عن البرزتيشن ؟ > دراما رابع بتول الساعه 8
كلنا بنسوي الأسبوع الجاي ؟
جيت متأخر وانتهت قصته واللي حولي مو فاهمين خخخ ..

بنات محححد يدري ؟

[Neeno]

اهلين بنات

بسألكم في موضوع لسنة ثالث ؟!
اذا فيه ممكن الرابط

[~ Luna]

3rd year:

http://www.ckfu.org/vb/t208263-123.html

d3watK

[E x i T]

السلآم عليييكم

بننات نجلآء قالت لنا اطبعوا تكست
art as technique

بس مالقيت شي وما عرفت اطلعه !

اللي لقت ياليت تحط لنا الرآبط والله يجزآها خييير

[نــونــه]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة E x i T

السلآم عليييكم

بننات نجلآء قالت لنا اطبعوا تكست
art as technique

بس مالقيت شي وما عرفت اطلعه !

اللي لقت ياليت تحط لنا الرآبط والله يجزآها خييير

تفضلي



Art as Technique
Viktor Borisovich Shklovsky
*
“Art is thinking in images.” This maxim, which even high school students parrot, is nevertheless the starting point for the erudite philologist who is beginning to put together some kind of systematic literary theory. The idea, originated in part by Potebnya, has spread. “Without imagery there is no art, and in particular no poetry,” Potebnya writes. And elsewhere, “poetry, as well as prose, is first and foremost a special way of thinking and knowing.”
Poetry is a special way of thinking; it is precisely, a way of thinking in images, a way which permits what is generally called “economy of mental effort,” a way which makes for “a sensation of the relative ease of the process.” Aesthetic feeling is the reaction to this economy. This is how the academician Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky, who undoubtedly read the works of Potebnya attentively, almost certainly understood and faithfully summarized the ideas of his teacher. Potebnya and his numerous disciples consider poetry a special kind of thinking--- thinking by means of images; they feel that the purpose of imagery is to help channel various objects and activities into groups and to clarify the unknown by means of the known.
Nevertheless, the definition “Art is thinking in images,” which means (I omit the usual middle terms of the argument) that art is the making of symbols, has survived the downfall of the theory which supported it. It survives chiefly in the wake of Symbolism, especially among the theorists of the Symbolist movement.
Many still believe, then, that thinking in images---thinking, in specific scenes of “roads and landscape” and “furrows and boundaries” --- is the chief characteristic of poetry. Consequently, they should have expected the history of “imagistic art,” as they call it, to consist of a history of changes in imagery. But we find that images change little; from century to century, from nation to nation, from poet to poet, they flow on without changing. Images belong to no one: they are “the Lord’s.” The more you understand an age, the more convinced you become that the images a given poet used and which you thought his own were taken almost unchanged from another poet. The works of poets are classified or grouped according to the new techniques that poets discover and share, and according to their arrangement and development of the resources of language; poets are much more concerned with arranging images than with creating them. Images are given to poets; the ability to remember them is far more important than the ability to create them.
Imagistic thought does not, in any case, include all the aspects of art nor even all the aspects of verbal art. A change in imagery is not essential to the development of poetry. We know that frequently an expression is thought to be poetic, to be created for aesthetic pleasure, although actually it was created without such intent---e.g., Annensky’s opinion that the Slavic languages are especially poetic and Andrey Bely’s ecstasy over the technique of placing adjectives after nouns, a technique used by eighteenth-century Russian poets. Bely joyfully accepts the technique as something artistic, or more exactly, as intended, if we consider intention as art. Actually, this reversal of the usual adjective-noun order is a peculiarity of the language (which had been influenced by Church Slavonic). Thus a work may be (1) intended as prosaic and accepted as poetic, or (2) intended as poetic and accepted as prosaic. This suggests that the artistry attributed to a given work results from the way we perceive it. By “works of art,” in the narrow sense, we mean words created by special techniques designed to make the works as obviously artistic as possible.
Potebnya’s conclusion, which can be formulated “poetry equals imagery,” gave rise to the whole theory that “imagery equals symbolism,” that the image may serve as the invariable predicate of various subjects. (This conclusion, because it expressed ideas similar to the theories of the Symbolists, intrigued some of their leading representatives---Andrey Bely, Merezhkovsky and his “eternal companions” and , in fact, formed the basis of the theory of Symbolism.) The conclusion stems partly from the fact that Potebnya did not distinguish between the language of poetry and the language of prose. Consequently, he ignored the fact that there are two aspects of imagery: imagery as a practical means of thinking, as a means of placing objects within categories; and imagery as poetic, as a means of reinforcing an impression. I shall clarify with an example. I want to attract the attention of a young child who is eating bread and butter and getting the butter on her fingers. I call, “Hey, butterfingers!” This is a figure of speech, a clearly prosaic trope. Now a different example. The child is playing with my glasses and drops them. I call, “Hey butterfingers!” This figure of speech is a poetic trope. (In the first example, butter finger is metonymic; in the second, metaphoric---but this is not what I want to stress.)
Poetic imagery is a means of creating the strongest possible impression. As a method it is, depending upon its purpose, neither more nor less effective than other poetic techniques; it is neither more nor less effective than ordinary or negative parallelism, comparison, repetition, balanced structure, hyperbole, the commonly accepted rhetorical figures, and all those methods which emphasize the emotional effect of an expression (including words or even articulated sounds.) But poetic imagery only externally resembles either the stock imagery of fables and ballads or thinking in images---e.g., the example in Ovsyaniko-Kulikovsky’s Language and Art in which a little girl calls a ball a little watermelon. Poetic imagery is but one of the devices of poetic language. Prose imagery is a means of abstraction: a little watermelon instead of a lampshade, or a little watermelon instead of a head, is only the abstraction of one of the object’s characteristics, that of roundness. It is no different from saying that the head and the melon are both round. This is what is meant, but it has nothing to do with poetry.
These ideas about the economy of energy, as well as about the law and aim of creativity, are perhaps true in their application to “practical” language; they were, however, extended to poetic language. Hence they do not distinguish properly between the laws of practical language and the laws of poetic language. The fact that Japanese poetry has sounds not found in conversational Japanese was hardly the first factual indication of the differences between poetic and everyday language. Leo Jakubinsky has observed that the law of the dissimilation of liquid sounds does not apply to poetic language. This suggested to him that poetic language tolerated the admission of hard-to-pronounce conglomerations of similar sounds. In his article, one of the first examples of scientific criticism, he indicates inductively, the contrast (I shall say more about this point later) between the laws of poetic language and the laws of practical language.
We must, then, speak about the laws of expenditure and economy in poetic language not on the basis of an analogy with prose, but on the basis of the laws of poetic language.
If we start to examine the general laws of perception, we see that as perception becomes habitual, it becomes automatic. Thus, for example, all of our habits retreat into the area of the unconsciously automatic; if one remembers the sensations of holding a pen or of speaking in a foreign language for the first time and compares that with his feeling at performing the action for the ten thousandth time, he will agree with us. Such habituation explains the principles by which, in ordinary speech, we leave phrases unfinished and words half expressed. In this process, ideally realized in algebra, things are replaced by symbols. Complete words are not expressed in rapid speech; their initial sounds are barely perceived. Alexander Pogodin offers the example of a boy considering the sentence “The Swiss mountains are beautiful” in the form of a series of letters: T. S. m. a. b.
This characteristic of thought not only suggests the method of algebra, but even prompts the choice of symbols (letters, especially initial letters). By this “algebraic” method of thought we apprehend objects only as shapes with imprecise extensions; we do not see them in their entirety but rather recognize them by their main characteristics. We see the object as though it were enveloped in a sack. We know what it is by its configuration, but we see only its silhouette. The object, perceived thus in the manner of prose perception, fades and does not leave even a first impression; ultimately even the essence of what it was is forgotten. Such perception explains why we fail to hear the prose word in its entirety (see Les Jakubinsky’s article) and, hence, why (along with other slips of the tongue) we fail to pronounce it. The process of “algebrization,” the over-automatization of an object, permits the greatest economy of perceptive effort. Either objects are assigned only one proper feature---a number, for example---or else they function as though by formula and do not even appear in cognition:
I was cleaning a room and, meandering about, approached the divan and couldn’t remember whether or not I had dusted it. Since these movements are habitual and unconscious, I could not remember and felt that it was impossible to remember---so that if I had dusted it and forgot--- that is, had acted unconsciously, then it was the same as if I had not. If some conscious person had been watching, then the fact could be established. If, however, no one was looking, or looking on unconsciously, if the whole complex lives of many people go on unconsciously, then such lives are as if they had never been.
And so life is reckoned as nothing. Habitualization devours works, clothes, furniture, one’s wife, and the fear of war. “If the whole complex lives of many people go on unconsciously, then such lives are as if they had never been.” And art exists that one may recover the sensation of life; it exists to make one feel things, to make the stone stony. The purpose of art is to impart the sensation of things as they are perceived and not as they are known. The technique of art is to make objects “unfamiliar,” to make forms difficult, to increase the difficulty and length of perception because the process of perception is an aesthetic end in itself and must be prolonged. Art is a way of experiencing the artfulness of an object; the object is not important.
The range of poetic (artistic) work extends from the sensory to the cognitive, from poetry to prose, from the concrete to the abstract; from Cervantes’s Don Quixote---scholastic and poor nobleman, half consciously bearing his humiliation in the court of the duke---to the broad but empty Don Quixote of Turgenev; from Charlemagne to the name “king” [in Russian “Charles” and “king” obviously derive from the same root, korol]. The meaning of a work broadens to the extent that artfulness and artistry diminish; thus a fable symbolizes more than a poem, and a proverb more than a fable. Consequently, the least self-contradictory part of Potebnya’s theory is his treatment of the fable, which, from his point of view, he investigated thoroughly. But since his theory did not provide for “expressive” works of art, he could not finish his book. As we know, Notes on the Theory of Literature was published in 1905, thirteen years after Potebnya’s death. Potebnya himself completed only the section on the fable.
After we see an object several times, we begin to recognize it. The object is in front of us and we know about it, but we do not see it---hence we cannot say anything significant about it. Art removes objects from the automatism of perception in several ways. Here I want to illustrate a way used repeatedly by Leo Tolstoy, that writer who, for Merezhkovsky at least, seems to present things as if he himself saw them, saw them in their entirety, and did not alter them.
Tolstoy makes the familiar seem strange by not naming the familiar object. He describes an object as if he were seeing it for the first time, an event as if it were happening for the first time. In describing something he avoids the accepted names of its parts and instead names corresponding parts of other objects. For example, in “Shame” Tolstoy “defamiliarizes” the idea of flogging in this way: “to strip people who have broken the law, to hurl them to the floor, and to rap on their bottoms with switches,” and, after a few lines, “to lash about on the naked buttocks.” Then he remarks:
Just why precisely this stupid, savage means of causing pain and not any other---why not prick the shoulders or any part of the body with needles, squeeze the hands or the feet in a vise, or anything like that?
I apologize for this harsh example, but it is typical of Tolstoy’s way of pricking the conscience. The familiar act of flogging is made unfamiliar both by the description and by the proposal to change its form without changing its nature. Tolstoy uses this technique of “defamiliarization” constantly. The narrator of “Kholstomer,” for example, is a horse, and it is the horse’s point of view (rather than a person’s) that makes the content of the story seem unfamiliar. Here is how the horse regards the institution of private property:
I understood well what they said about whipping and Christianity. But then I was absolutely in the dark. What’s the meaning of “his own,” “his colt”? From these phrases I saw that people thought there was some sort of connection between me and the stable. At the time I simply could not understand the connection. Only much later, when they separated me from the other horses, did I begin to understand. But even then I simply could not see what it meant when they called me “man’s property.” The words “my horse” referred to me, a living horse, and seemed as strange to me as the words “my land,” “my air,” “my water.”
But the words make a strong impression on me. I thought about them constantly, and only after the most diverse experiences with people did I understand, finally, what they meant. They meant this: in life people are guided by words, not by deeds. It’s not so much that they love the possibility of doing or not doing something as it is the possibility of speaking with words, agreed on among themselves, about various topics. Such are the words “my” and “mine,” which they apply to different things, creatures, objects, and even to land, people, and horses. They agree that only one may say “mine” about this, that, or the other thing. And the one who says “mine” about the greatest number of things is, according to the game which they’ve agreed to among themselves, the one they consider the most happy. I don’t know the point of all this, but it’s true. For a long time I tried to explain it to myself in terms of some kind of real gain, but I had to reject that explanation because it was wrong. Many of those, for instance, who called me their own never rode on me--- although others did. And so with those who fed me. Then again, the coachman, the veterinarians, and the outsiders in general treated me kindly, yet those who called me their own did not. In due time, having widened the scope of my observations, I satisfied myself that the notion “my,” not only in relation to us horses, has no other basis than a narrow human instinct which is called a sense of or right to private property. A man says “this house is mine” and never lives in it; he only worries about its construction and upkeep. A merchant says “my shop,” “my dry goods shop,” for instance, and does not even wear clothes made from the better cloth he keeps in his own shop.
There are people who call a tract of land their own, but they never set eyes on it and never take a stroll on it. There are people who call others their own, yet never see them. And the whole relationship between them is that the so-called “owners” treat the others unjustly.
There are people who call women their own, or their “wives,” but their women live with other men. And people strive not for the good in life, but for goods they can call their own.
I am now convinced that this is the essential difference between people and ourselves. And therefore, not even considering the other ways in which we are superior, but considering just this one virtue, we can bravely claim to stand higher than men on the ladder of living creatures. The actions of men, at least those with whom I have had dealings, are guided by words---ours, by deeds.
The horse is killed before the end of the story, but the manner of the narrative, its technique, does not change:
Much later they put Serpukhovsky’s body, which had experienced the world, which had eaten and drunk, into the ground. They could profitably send neither his hide, nor his flesh, nor his bones anywhere.
But since his dead body, which had gone about in the world for twenty years, was a great burden to everyone, its burial was only a superfluous embarrassment for the people. For a long time no one had needed him; for a long time he had been a burden on all. But nevertheless, the dead who buried the dead found it necessary to dress this bloated body, which immediately began to rot, in a good uniform and good boots; to lay it in a good new coffin with new tassels at the four corners, then to place this new coffin in another of lead and ship it to Moscow; there to exhume ancient bones and at just that spot, to hide this putrefying body, swarming with maggots, in its new uniform and clean boots, and to cover it over completely with dirt.
Thus we see that at the end of the story Tolstoy continues to use the technique even though the motivation for it [the reason for its use] is gone.

[نــونــه]

لغويات د. اميمه

ايش سالفه برنامج الكلمة وأخواتها