[ اللغة الانجليزية ] : l|][Ξ¯▪ Last Year 1st Semester ▪¯Ξ][|

[رنومه..]

“Borrowing” words from other languages is one of the most common processes of forming and adding new words. English has borrowed extensively from other languages, especially French, Latin, and Greek; other languages also include German, Japanese, Chinese, and so forth.
Each language has its own unique features, for example, its own grammatical and phonetic systems; thus, when words are borrowed into another language, they have to undergo certain changes in order to fit into the new language system.
Borrowing is a consequence of cultural contact between two language communities. Borrowing of words can go in both directions between the two languages in contact, but often there is an asymmetry, such that more words go from one side to the other. In this case the source language community has some advantage of power, prestige and/or wealth that makes the objects and ideas it brings desirable and useful to the borrowing language community. For example, the Germanic tribes in the first few centuries A.D. adopted numerous loanwords from Latin as they adopted new products via trade with the Romans. Few Germanic words, on the other hand, passed into Latin.

Causes and means of borrowings into English:
Historically, on the one hand, English shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures; Also, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin, French, some through other Romance languages, such as Italian, Spanish and Portuguese. *
The influence of foreign languages on the English language has been the result of the succession of invaders who came into contact with the English people during the Middle Ages, on the one hand. On the other hand, invasions and trade by the English themselves have carried English to most parts of the world, and at the same time brought many words from foreign languages into English.
Socially, as the world develops so does the English language. Especially in the twentieth century, owing to the rapid development of the modern mass media, the international and cultural exchange and information, a great number of borrowed words have come into English. They have become a component part of the English vocabulary to satisfy needs of society through conquest, commerce, travel, literature, mass media, i.e. newspaper, radio-broadcast, television and many other ways. In other words, loan words have come into English through the spoken word.
ways of borrowing

What gets obvious here is a very basic distinction that can be made between borrowings. Direct borrowing is when a language takes over a term directly from another language. The English word omelette is an example for direct borrowing because it has been taken over from French (French: omelette) directly, without any major phonological or orthographical changes. In contrast to that, indirect borrowing takes place when a certain word is passed on from the source language to another (as a direct borrowing), and then from that language is handed over to another and from this one maybe even to another. This process may go hand in hand with the development that the word, each time it is passed on from one language to another, is adjusted phonologically/orthographically to make it fit to the phonological/ orthographical system of the recipient language . The Turkish word kahveh has been passed on to Arabic as kahva, from there the Dutch borrowed it as koffie and finally it was taken over by the English in the form coffee . In this context, Katamba reminds us that there is danger of misunderstandings or alternations in the meaning, the more indirect a term is borrowed. In English there exists the term howitzer (‘light gun’). It entered the language from Dutch and they had borrowed it from the Czech original houfnice which means ‘catapult’ .

kinds of borrowing..

To complicate matters even further, there is another distinction between the kinds of
borrowings, i.e. the distinction between loanwords and loanshifts. Most of the examples
discussed before are loanwords. That means, they have been imported/ adopted from another language, either directly or indirectly, and might have undergone phonological/ orthographical changes.
Loan shifts (= loan translations/ calques) on the other side are formed in a quite different way. Here the borrowing is done by translating the vocabulary item or rather its meaning into the receiving language. Such a loanshift is the German word Übermensch which has been
translated into English as Superman. Moreover, the term loanword itself is a loan translation from the German Lehnwort


Generally, it has to be remarked that the borrowing of a word into another language is always a gradual process which takes quite some time. This gradual might even lead to the result that foreign words which are borrowed become ‘nativised’, in the case of English then ‘anglicised’. Thus, they then become indistinguishable from indigenous English terms or as Jespersen has put it so nicely, with a quotation full of Norse loan words which a native speaker of English
would not detect as foreign elements: “An Englishman cannot thrive or die or be ill without Scandinavian words; they are to the language what bread and eggs are to the daily fare”

examples>>


1.Germanic period
*
anchor , kitchen , church ,dish .


2.Old English Period (600-1100)
Latin
**emperor , city , circle

Celtic
(few ordinary words, but thousands of place and river names: London,
Devon, Dover, Cornwall, Thames, Avon...)


3. Middle English Period (1100-1500)
ScandinavianMost of these first appeared in the written language in Middle English; but many were no doubt borrowed earlier, during the period of the Danelaw (9th-10th centuries).
anger, cake, call, clumsy, egg

French
*Law and government—chancellor, country, court, crime, evidence.
*Church— clergy, prayer, *priest, religion.
*Nobility—baron, count, *duke, noble, royal .
*Military—army, battle, captain, company.
*Culture and luxury goods—art, dance, diamond, fashion, painting.
*Other—adventure, change, charge, chart, courage.

Sometimes it's hard to tell whether a given word came from French or whether it was taken straight from Latin. Words for which this difficulty occurs are those in which there were no special sound and/or spelling changes of the sort that distinguished French from Latin.

IV. Early Modern English Period (1500-1650)

The effects of the Renaissance begin to be seriously felt in England. We see the beginnings of a huge influx of Latin and Greek words, many of them learned words imported by scholars well versed in those languages. But many are borrowings from other languages, as words from European high culture begin to make their presence felt and the first words come in from the earliest period of colonial expansion.
Latin*************************************
anatomy, area, disc/disk, expensive,
*Greek
(many of these via Latin)
anonymous, atmosphere, catastrophe, climax, comedy, critic,
data,
*Arabic via Spanish
*algebra, algorithm, alchemy,
Arabic via other Romance languages:
*orange, sugar, zero, coffee


V. Modern English (1650-present)
About 1650 was the start of major colonial expansion, industrial/technological revolution, and significant American immigration. Words from all over the world begin to pour in during this period. Also, the tendency for specialists to borrow words from Latin and Greek, including creating new words out of Latin and Greek word elements, continues from the last period and also increases with the development of science, technology, and other fields.
Words from European languagesFrench French continues to be the largest single source of new words outside of very specialized vocabulary domains (scientific/technical vocabulary, still dominated by classical borrowings).High culture
*champagne, chic, rouge
*War and Military
*brigade, cavalry,infantry,
*Spanish
armada, alligator,guitar.

[رنومه..]

يلآآ تصبحون على امتحآن موفق...

الله لآ يضيع لنآ تعب...

[honey eyes]

سؤال المقال كان عليه 20 وباقي الأسئله توزعت عليها 30

لا الأيسي عليه 25 والإكسرسآيزيز 25 هي قالت كذا
وحتى تقسيم الدرجات ع الإكسرسآيز كان 8,2,5,10
بنات شفتو من المراجع؟! أحمد الكومي
مادري ليش حسيت بالأمان لمن شفت اسمه

[أتعبتني يا قلب]

^
^
^
honey eyes
الايساي عليه 20 والاكسرسايسز 30
انا بعد انبسطت لما شفت اسمه

[Lunatic]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة honey eyes

لا الأيسي عليه 25 والإكسرسآيزيز 25 هي قالت كذا
وحتى تقسيم الدرجات ع الإكسرسآيز كان 8,2,5,10
بنات شفتو من المراجع؟! أحمد الكومي
مادري ليش حسيت بالأمان لمن شفت اسمه

مدري الي اذكره اني شفت عند كل سؤال درجه والايسي كان 20

[لاتغرك ضحكتي]

بنات هذا الشي ينفع لسؤال البرستيجوس لانقويج ؟؟
http://www.saching.com/Article/The-i...Language-/3556

[jawaher]

والشورت نوتس حقاته مره حلوين وواضحين .. عندي احساس يجيب فيهم السوشيال دايلكت + الاديكوشنال والاوكيوبايشن << مجرد احساس


*: ماهدا باانجليزى الاديكوشنال والاوكيبوبايشن لم اجدهم ؟؟؟؟

[Barbie]

الحين الاسئلة بتكون موحدة بمعنى زي اللغويات مثلا كل دكتور يكتب اسئلته وهي تشويس بالاخير كل واحد بيحل من منهج دكتور المادة او الدكتورة صح ؟
بالنسبه للي كاتبته رنومه يمه خفت وش هذا process of borrowing ذا من منهج الدكتورة !!
السؤال لو جانا نفس السؤال بنات الدكتور يكتبو سطرين والدكتورة يكتبو مجلد ؟؟؟
وش مكتوب عند بنات الدكتور للبرستيج لانقوج و ريجستر ؟؟ slang, jargon

[honey eyes]

^
honey eyes
الايساي عليه 20 والاكسرسايسز 30
انا بعد انبسطت لما شفت اسمه

مدري الي اذكره اني شفت عند كل سؤال درجه والايسي كان 20

ييوء غريبة انا كنت سائلتها قبل الأمتحان بشوي قالت 25 ..25 !!
وشفت تقسيم الأكسرسايزز كان كذا اما الأيسي ماطالعت فيه
آني وييه أهم شي ان الأختبار الحمدلله كان رووووعة
وأن شاءالله كلنـا فل مااركس

[نــونــه]

المشاركة الأصلية كتبت بواسطة jawaher

والشورت نوتس حقاته مره حلوين وواضحين .. عندي احساس يجيب فيهم السوشيال دايلكت + الاديكوشنال والاوكيوبايشن << مجرد احساس

*: ماهدا باانجليزى الاديكوشنال والاوكيبوبايشن لم اجدهم ؟؟؟؟

education and occupation
محاضره قبل الاخيره ...