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What is Translation?
The Meaning of Translation as a noun or a verb:
1. The origin of the word „translation‟ is the Latin word „translatus‟ which means „transferred‟.
2. The dictionary meaning of the English verb „to translate‟ is „to express or be capable of being expressed in another language or dialect.
3. In French , it means „traduction‟ as a noun and „a traduire‟ as a verb
4. In Arabic, it means: انتشجمة مه نغة إني أخشى
Simple Definitions of Translation:
1. Catford (1965): defines translation as “the replacement of textual material in one language SL by equivalent textual material in another language TL”.
2. Newmark (1982): defines it as “a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language”.
3. Bell (1991) mentions two views:
 one looks at it as an „art‟ especially when the scholars of last century were preoccupied with the translation of literary text as a pastime;
 And another looks at it as a „profession‟ where the majority of translators are professionals engaged in making a living rather than a pastime. This is mainly clear in the translation of technical, medical, legal and administrative texts.
4. In the present sense of the word, translation is a „generic term used to refer to the process of rendering a text in one language into an equivalent text in another.‟
Advanced Definitions of Translation:
Having taken into account all the developments in Translation Studies during last century, Bell (1991) seems suggest a more comprehensive definition of translation which stress the dimension of semantic and stylistic equivalence in translation:
1. “Translation is the replacement of a representation of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second language.”
Another advanced definition of translation is the one introduced by Etchnia Arjona
(Gerver 1977) as follows:
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ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك فيصل – اللغة الإنجليزية - المستوى الخامس
Translation theory By DewDrop
2. “Translation is a generic term for the interlingual, sociolinguistic and cultural transfer for any message from one community to another through various modes of written, oral, or mechanical means or combinations thereof.”
How can we achieve Equivalence in Translation?
When we are faced by a text- written or oral in a language we know, we are able to work out its equivalence by looking in to the following:
o The semantic sense of each word and sentence.
o Its communicative value.
o Its place in time and space.
o The information about the participants involved in its production and reception.
Using the Six Wh-Questions in looking for Equivalence in translating a text:
1. What? Is the message contained in the text, the content of the signal, the propositional content of the speech acts.
2. Why? Orients us towards the intentions of the sender, the purpose for which the text was issued.
3. When? Is concerned with the time of communication realised in the text and setting it in its historical context; contemporary or set in recent or remote past or future.
4. How? Is ambiguous as it can refer to:
o a) Manner of delivery: the tenor of the discourse; is it serious or ironic?
o b) Medium of communication; the mode of the discourse: is it oral or written?
5. Where? Is concerned with the place of the communication; the physical location of speech event realised in the text.
6. Who? Refers to the participants involved in the communication; the sender and receiver(s). Both spoken and written reveal the characteristics of the speaker or writer as an individual.
What is a Good Translation?
According to Bell, a good translation is “that in which the merit of the original work is so completely transfused into another language, as to be as distinctly apprehended, and as strongly felt, by a native of the country to which that language belongs, as it is by those who speak the language of the original work.”
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ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك فيصل – اللغة الإنجليزية - المستوى الخامس
Translation theory By DewDrop
Three Laws of Good Translation:
As a result of the above good definition of translation, the following three laws emerge from it:
1. That the Translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.
2. That the style and manner of writing should be of the same character with that of the original.
3. That the Translation should have all the ease of the original composition.
Translation as process and product
A more advanced definition of translation can be seen when we look
at it as process and product. In other words: “It is the abstract concept which encompasses both the process of translation and the product of that process”.
o Translating: is the process i.e. (to translate; it is the activity rather than the tangible object).
o A Translation: is the product of the process of translating (i.e. the translated text).
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ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك فيصل – اللغة الإنجليزية - المستوى الخامس
Translation theory By DewDrop
Lecture 2
What is Translation?
Communication Versus Translation:
o All communicators are translators, because they receive signals in speech and in writing containing messages encoded in a communication system which is not identical with their own.
o All communicators tend to face the same problems as those of translators, because they need to read the text, make sense of a text. They need to deconstruct it and then reconstruct it.
o Therefore, we can say that any model of communication is a model of translation.
What is the difference between a normal communicator and a Translator?
When taking a turn as a sender, the monolingual is obliged to: The Translator's acts contrast on that:
a) Encode into the language used by the sender.
a) The encoding consists of re-encoding into a different language.
b) Encode messages which are different from those received.
b) Concerns the same message as was Received.
c) And transmit them to the previous sender.
c) It is aimed at a group receivers who are not the same as the original sender.
It is the re-encoding process which marks the bilingual translator off from the monolingual communicator.
How important are memory, meaning and language to the Translator?
Like other communicators, translators need excellent memory to enable them use the semantic knowledge, syntactic knowledge and rhetorical knowledge of two different languages and two different cultures:
o Memory: contains „records‟ of past experiences has plans for action on the basis of what we know and what we have done.
o Language: much of our experience of the external world of the senses and the inner world of the mind is mediated by language.
Translators must be good at storing experiences in memory, and at retrieving those experiences whenever needed to solve complex translation problems.
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ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك فيصل – اللغة الإنجليزية - المستوى الخامس
Translation theory By DewDrop
How does a translator move from one language to another in the course of translation?
When translating a written communication, the translator go through the following nine steps:
1. Translator receives signal 1 containing message
2. Recognises code 1
3. Decodes signal 1
4. Retrieves message
5. Comprehend message
6. Translator selects code 2
7. Encodes message by means of code 2
8. Select channel
9. Transmits signal 2 containing message.
What does the translator‟s knowledge-base contain?
A professional translator has access to five distinct kinds of knowledge:
 Target Language knowledge (TL)
 Text-Type knowledge
 Source Language knowledge (SL)
 Subject-area knowledge
 And contrastive knowledge
What does the translator‟s communicative competence consist of?
The translator communicative competences consists of the following components:
 Grammatical competence: knowledge of the rules of the code, including vocabulary and word formation, pronunciation/spelling and sentence structure.
 Sociolinguistic Competence: knowledge of and ability to produce and understand utterances appropriately in context, i.e. as constrained by topic, the status of the participant, purpose of the interaction, etc.
 Discourse competence: The ability to combine form and meaning to achieve a unified spoken or written texts in different genres. This unity depends on cohesion in form (i.e. the way in which utterances are linked structurally to facilitate interpretation of text) and coherence in meaning (i.e. the relationships among the different meanings in a text, literal meaning, communicative function or social meaning)
 Strategic competence: the mastery of communication strategies which may be used to improve communication or to compensate for breakdowns in actual communication.
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ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعه الملك فيصل – اللغة الإنجليزية - المستوى الخامس
Translation theory By DewDrop
What are the primary characteristics of a good translator?
The following are just a few of the primary characteristics of a good translator:
 A Translator thinks and talks about translation from inside the process, knowing how it‟s done, possessing a practical real-world sense of the problems involved.
 Reliability: He acts in reliable ways delivering reliable translation by deadlines.
 Timeliness: He should be timely, in the sense of not getting the translation arrive past the time of its usefulness or value.
 Ethics: He should be ethical. In other words, it is unethical for the translator to distort the meaning of the source text.
 Speed: A translator should be able to know when to speed and when to not to seeped. This depends on the following factors:
1) Typing speed 2) The level of text difficulty
3) Personal preferences or style 4) Job stress, general mental state.
 Memory: A Translator must be good at storing experiences in memory and retrieving those experiences whenever needed to solve complex translation problems.
 Professional Pride: a Translator should have a professional integrity and professional self-esteem in what he/she does. He should feel that the job he is doing is important and people appreciate his work.
 A Translator can write plainly, economically, gracefully, elegantly in a repertoire of registers, factual

as well as emotional, popular as well as technical, official as well as slan

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re are two generation in the group of the Metaphysical poets; an older generation and a younger generation. The older is known as the metaphysical poet (John Donne- George Herbert) Andrew Marvell falls between the two. He is a good example of a poet who carries the seeds of the two stages.
The younger generation is the Cavalier poets. They are writing poetry that is carrying some influence of the metaphysical. They are writing poetry dealing with love, fun and joy. They were writing for the elite. We can speak of these people as being courtiers - writing for the elite. They are referred to as Ben’s sons (the sons of Ben Jonson) he is the father of the Cavalier poets. He presented then with an example to follow.
They have their own unique way of writing. Their writings are very similar to their life and to their interest. They are writing their own interest. Their own views were reflected in the society.
The main theme they are writing on is women- love affairs. We find war( civil war) there and biblical references.
War is a prestigious action that they usually take to attract women to them. They are courtiers, knights- brave, courageous. They are enjoying special characteristics. But it does not mean that they are completely different from the metaphysical.
When we read them, we find this easy language- similar to the metaphysical.
We need to know what is common between them and the metaphysical- what characteristics they share with the older generation and what differences they have.
They are writing about fun, love, women and joy which are taken from 16th century courtier writers. They are still writing under the same umbrella of the metaphysical poetry. we find their poetry written in an argumentative style- questions are being answered- discussions, conclusions, resolutions are to be set. There is also the simplicity of language with simplicity of structure. We find the structure very easy and direct. It is because of the simplicity of the subject matter. The subject matter has straightforward meaning. It is not complicated. They did not intend the structure to go beyond the apparent sentence meaning, the surface meaning of the sentence like the metaphysical where we find layers of meaning. The language is simple, direct and straightforward but the structure is simpler than the metaphysical.
Their images are sometimes taken from science and religion.
These are generally speaking the characteristics of the Cavalier poets.
We find their poetry interesting. They wrote a lot of songs, lyrics. It is poetry that is written in an easy language and designed to be sung. It should be short, light in meaning and simple in language.
 


How could we read John Suckling and Richard Lovelace as Cavalier poets?
How to approach the poems critically as Cavalier poetry?
They are two young poets descending from luxurious families. They are highly educated. Their language, though it is simple, it is communicative, suggestive. They are capable of creating and building images.
The Cavalier poets have their own characteristics but they are sharing some of the metaphysical like the conceits and some of their strange images.
There is the love issue which is to be traced in different approach.
It is divine love, about devotion to God. We find male-female relationship. There is the idea of love.
With the metaphysical there is love, death, science, religion, relations. The Cavilers are mainly speaking about love and wars which end up with death. To communicate these themes, they are using luxurious ways of speaking about love and war. War is accredited to their characters. They are thinking of themselves as being braves, credited with honor. This honor will attract their beloved more.
With the metaphysical, there is love but there is no failure. There is separation that is intended. There is devotion, human-God relationship
With the cavilers there is love and failure. There is no devotion, no commitment. There is no deep interest. Love for them is light emotion, passing by relations. It is love for fun.
Both styles are argumentative.
The themes are recurrently here and there but the treatment is different by the young generation and the old generation.
Nature is there. It is used to serve their feelings.




Song
Why so pale and wan fond lover? Pale شاحب-ضعيف
Prithee why so pale?
Will, when looking well can't move her,
Looking ill prevail?
Prithee why so pale?

Why so dull and mute young sinner?
Prithee why so mute?
Will, when speaking well can't win her,
Saying nothing do't?
Prithee why so mute?

Quit, quit for shame, this will not move, خجل-خزي
This cannot take her;
If of herself she will not love,
Nothing can make her;
The devil take her. الشيطان
• Write a kind of evaluation of the title- it is a song
• Give an early general meaning of the text
• Do a kind of critical reading- what is the theme- how are the themes communicated to the reader- through the images, structure, the rhyme-
• The speaker is addressing his friend. He is in pain and he is sad because he has failed in love. He is addressing the lover.
• He is drawing a number of images. In the first one, we are in front of someone who is in pain . This is due to his sadness. This communicates to us the idea of being sad. It is a mixed image. He is in pain because he failed his love.
• There are three characters, lover, beloved and a friend. The beloved is absent. The addressee is the friend who is the lover. The speaker is his friend.
• The structure is simple.
• The conclusion is harshقاس-جاف enough to dismiss يصرف-ينبذ-يطرد this lady from his life.
• He is not advising his friend to forget her, but he is cursing يسب-يلعن her by saying that the devil takes her.
• There is repetition of “ why” and the “ w’ sound. “well-why- won…
There is alliteration الجناس الاستهلالي. .This is part of the poetic language. Alliteration is suitable for the emotional case of his friend. There is sadness. There is no harshnessخشونة-فظاظة . It is an impression of sadness. The language is smooth and simple. They use all the tools possible in their hands to draw the image. We are in front of an image of a sad person who is suffering failure اخفاق in love.
• We have three stanzas. In each stanza, there is an image.
1. The first image is an image who is pale.
2. The second image is of someone who is dull غبي-كسول-ممل-فاتر and muteأبكم .
3. The third image is the image of a devil who is avenging ينتقم-يثأر this failureالمخفق by taking her.
In one stanza- the fist stanza- of five lines, we have four questions. It is an argumentative style, questioning and answering. He comes to a conclusion- it is a curse. This is the idea of a devil joining man. This is part of their superstitious خرافي- metaphysical. It is related to a superstitious idea that was common at that time.
It is an open end discussion. It is argumentative. Here are 8 questions in 15 lines.
It is a song= short poem speaks about emotion. It is short. Its language is simple and light.










To Lucasta, Going to the Wars
Tell me not, sweet, I am unkind,
That from the nunnery
Of thy chaste breast, and quiet mind,
To war and arms I fly.

True; a new mistress now I serve,
The first foe in the field;
And with a sterner faith embrace,
A sword, a horse, a shield.

Yet this inconstancy is such,
As thou too shalt adore;
I could not love thee (Dear) so much,
Love'd I not honor more.

• The theme is about leaving his beloved. Through this theme of departing his love, to war, he is describing the characteristics of knightsالفرسان.
He does not prefer war to her to be credited for more love. He is trying to credit himself for more honor so that he will be loved stronger by her. He is aware واع-مدرك of his responsibility to his country, to his nation. Therefore, he is ready to leave her to do his duty towards his country ending up with gaining more love of her. He is hitting two goals at the same time.
1. These two goals are serving his nation, showing commitment تعهد towards his country and
2. winning her heart. He is leaving her to war because he loves her. this separation in their life will give them chance to be together forever. This is to enjoy everlasting love.
Theme: It is love and war. War is a credit in the life of the caviler poets.
The country for him is but the woman he is in love with. The country is the mother- land- female. Whatever is said about land is said about female. He is ready to die for his country. This is communicated to us through this wonderful language and the images. Going to war to defend his country, to defend the land is more important for him than to stay with his beloved. If he loves his country properly, then, he loves her properly. If he defends his country, he will be honored. People will look at him as being an honorable man. Eventually, she will love him more. He will be a star. He wants the maximum honor, to gain more love from her side. This is said through the poetic way, the poetic language, argumentative style and a number of images. This is the beauty of poetry.

• Go and find:
how the civil war has been initiated- started in England?
• Who was responsible for that?
Ther e was a clash between James I and Richard II on the issue of finance. The main clash was between the parliament- that was not representative of people- and the king who had the divine right- the idea to be elected by God. The king asked the Parliament for a loan and they refused. A clash had happened. The king was executed. The country remained for 18 years without a monarch. Cromwell- the top of the Parliament- was running the country for 18 years.
Before reading Paradise Lost, read about Milton. He was born in 1608- very early in the 17th century. He practiced influence on literature at that time. He participated in the issue of Reformation Movement. He wrote number of pamphlets. He influenced people through his literary background. He was a bookworm. He read a lot. He knew different languages, Latin and Italian .when he writes, he is equipped with this vast knowledge, rich vocabulary, examples from the ancient of the Greek, modern examples of the French and the English issues. He used to improve his knowledge and revise his poetry. He was against the religious trends. He knows that it was part of the hypocritical society. It was politically manipulated.
The idea of religion is clear in his poetry- do not misuse and manipulate religion to improve your political issue. Religion should be there in full control but not to be manipulated to serve politics.
One of his strange ideas concerning the world is that he thinks that the world is for evil. There is evil in the world. Man should struggle to survive. That is what we find in Paradise Lost. There is Satan who is seducing man, pushing him to do evil. One should not submit himself to evil. He should struggle to survive. He believes that one of the ways to win the war against evil is to gain knowledge. Ignorant people are easily attracted, seduced, affected. Knowledge is a tool, a sward to defeat evil.
It was an answer for the church that was controlling the life of people. They did not have enough liberty to discuss the bible.
It does not mean that Milton was not religious. He was religious and he uses many Biblical references. “ Paradise Lost” depends mainly on a Biblical story. It is the story of Adam and Eve- the story of disobedience- they did not obey the instructions of God. It was evoked by Satan. They were seduced by Satan to commit this first sin, convincing them to eat from the forbidden fruit as it will bring them happiness and pleasure. The reason was being punished and descended from Eden.
What should you know in this poem:
• Short background of the age
• Short background of the poet
• The poem itself
- as an epic –
What is an epic? It is a long narrative poem written in a highly elevated language. it deals with the history of the nation. It is allegorical. He is speaking about something hitting at something else. He is writing on the dismissing of man from heaven. This lost paradise is nothing by the lost England. He is warning people if they followed their Satan, they will lose their Eden- their nation.
This is a biblical story used to preach people politically- biblical story used for political preaching.
When he is writing, he is carrying these wariness, the suffering of his country of both politics and religion. He has managed to join them together in one poem- in an epic.
He is asking many questions, discussing so many issues.
The epic involves the history of the nation. There are a lot of adventures, names, events, dates of the history of the nation.
He started a poem entitled ‘ Paradise Regained” regaining paradise can be only through a kind of settlement, regent and purgation.
With these many cultures, different languages, awareness and experience with politics and religion, Milton was capable of writing such a wonderful great epic.
First thirty lines , as an epic writer, he is speaking about his own task as a poet- what he is going to do.
Then, he is listing a number of places where the Muse used to inspire great writers.
He is adding historical dimension to this piece of literature by placing it, speaking about the Muse inspiration in the holy places.
He asks the muse to choose any place that he used to inspire great people and inspire him there. He says to the Muse that he knows a lot.
He is adding political dimension to his work. He is showing that what he is going to do is something divine. He needs an inspiration that is not common to all inspirations of poets.
In book I- he ends by justifying the way to God, sin, punishment. Then he discusses who is responsible for this sin.
• Characters – Satan is the most perfect character drawn by Milton. He is the controller. – Adam- Eve as an emotional character.
• Setting – it is a burning