Changing English: the African influence

If you ask average Americans where their language comes from, they will probably say "England"

However, English vocabulary has also been influenced by other countries and groups of people. Some words are borrowed from other language, such as typhoon, which originally came from the Chinese word, 'tai-fung', meaning 'big wind'. Skunk, the name of a small, smelly, black-and-white animal, came to English from a Native American language. African American, too, have both contributed new words to English and changed the meanings of some existing words

African Americans, many of whose ancestors were brought to the states as slaves hundreds of years ago, have introduced a number of words to English from language that they spoke in their native countries. The common English word OK is used around the world today, but it was not always part of English vocabulary. One theory is that slaves in America used a phrase and started using it. Today, almost everyone in the world uses OK to mean 'all right'. Another good example of a 'new' word is the word jazz. African American musicians living in the United States began playing jazz music in the city of New Orleans, and they used the word jass or jazz to describe the music and certain kinds of dancing. No one is sure where the word originally came from, but as jazz music became more and more popular, the word jazz became a common English word.

The meanings of words sometimes change over time. The cool is a good example. Cool has been used in English for a long time to describe a temperature that is 'not warm but not too cold' or to describe a person who is 'calm or unemotional'. However, an additional meaning was given to the word cool in the past 100years. Just like the word jazz, African American musicians used the word cool to describe the music they were playing. For them, cool meant 'good', as jazz music and other forms of music played by African American musicians became popular, more and more people started to use the word cool in conversation. Today, it is still a commonly used word, especially by younger people, to mean 'good' or 'great'. A word with the opposite meaning of cool is square. Square is, of course, a shape, but it also is used to describe a person who is not cool. This may be because a person who is too old-fashioned and not flexible is like a shape with four straight sides and four corners.

English owes some of its interesting and colorful vocabulary to African American. Existing ethnic groups in the United States as well as new immigrants will surely continue to bring new words to English and give fresh meaning to existing words. Who knows what the 'cool' words of tomorrow will be?

Native American Influences on modern U.S. Culture

When the first Europeans came to the North American continent, they encountered the completely new cultures of the Native American peoples of North America. Native Americans, who had highly developed cultures in many respects, must have been as curious about the strange European manners and customs as the Europeans were curious about them. As always happens when two or more cultures come into contact, there was a cultural exchange. Native Americans adopted some of the Europeans' ways, and the Europeans adopted some of their ways. As a result, Native Americans have many valuable contributions to modern U.S. culture, particularly in the areas of language, art, food, and government.(1)First of all, Native Americans lift a permanent mark on the English language. The early English-speaking settlers borrowed from several different Native American language words for places in this new land. All across the country are cities, towns, rivers, and states with Native American names.

For example, the states of Delaware, Lowa, Illinois, and Alabama are named after Native American tribes, as are the cities of Chicago, Miami, and Spokane. In addition to place names, English adopted from various Native American language the words for animals and plants found in the Americas. Chipmunk, moose, raccoon, skunk, tobacco, and squash are just a few examples(2)(1)

Although the vocabulary of English is the area that shows the most Native American influence, it is not the only area of U.S. culture that has been shaped by contact with Native Americans. Art is another area of important Native American contributions. Wool rugs woven by women of the Navajo tribe in Arizona and New Mexico are highly valued works of art in the United States. Native American jewelry made from silver and turquoise is also very popular and very expensive. Especially in the western and southwestern regions of the United States, native crafts such as pottery, leather products, and beadwork can be found in many homes. Indeed, native art, and handicrafts are a treasured part of U.S. culture.(3)(2)

In addition to language and art, agriculture is another area of important in which Native American had a great and lasting influence on the peoples who arrived here from Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Being skilled farmers, the Native American of North American taught the newcomers many things about farming techniques and crops. Every U.S. schoolchild has heard the story of hoe Native Americans taught the first settlers to place a dead fish in a planting hole to provide fertilizer for the growing plant.

Furthermore, they taught the settlers irrigation methods and crop rotation. Many of the foods people in the United States eat today were introduced to the Europeans by Native American. For example, corn and chocolate were unknown in Europe. Now they are staples in the U.S. diet.(4)(3)

Finally, it may surprise some people to learn citizens of the Unites States are also-indebted

To the native people for their form of government. The Iroquois who were an extremely large tribe with many branches called "nations," had developed a highly sophisticated system of government to settle disputes that arose between the various branches. Five of the nations had joined together in a confederation called "The league of the Iroquois." Under the league, each nation was autonomous in running its own internal affairs, but the nations acted as a unit when dealing with outsiders. The league kept the Iroquois from fighting among themselves and was also valuable in diplomatic relations with other tribes. When the 13 colonies were considering what kind of government to establish after