ملتقى طلاب وطالبات جامعة الملك فيصل,جامعة الدمام

z Syntax : the description of how words, phrases, and clauses are constructed and combined in

z Morphology: the part of grammar explaining how morphemes are put together to construct words.

z Grammar the analysis of the structure of phrases and sentences.

z Morphemes : they are parts of words, i.e. stems, prefixes, and suffixes.

z Syntax. : The part of grammar dealing with different grammatical units( words, phrases, clauses, and sentences)

z Morphology : The part of grammar dealing with morphemes .

z Grammatical units :are meaningful elements which combine with each other in a structural pattern.

z Grammatical units are described in terms of …………

a- Structure

· A word : ( Bases , Affixes )

· Phrases : ( Heads , Modifiers )

· Clauses : Clause element

b- Use

c- meaning

d- role.

z A clause: consists of one or more phrases.

z A phrase :consists of one or more words.

z A word: consists of one or more morphemes.

z A word : is the basic elements of language

z Different senses of the word ‘word’:

a- Orthographic words.

b- Grammatical words.

c- Lexemes.

z The major families of words are …………..

a- Lexical words.

b- Function words.

c- Inserts.

z Lexical words :are the main carriers of in information in a text or a speech act

- They can be subdivided into the following parts of speech:

· Nouns

· lexical verbs

· adjectives

· adverbs

z Function words:

· Prepositions

· Coordinators: in English has only four coordinators {and, or, but, and (rarely) nor}

· auxiliary verbs

· pronouns

· Function words belong to: closed classes

z Inserts : Wards that are found mainly in spoken language. They are often marked off by a break in intonation in speech, or by a punctuation mark in writing.

· yeah, no, okay, oh, ah, wow,Well, hm, uh-huh, ugh, yeah.

z The structure of words: morphology:

- Lexical words can have a single morpheme ( a stem, such as go, book, cat), Lexical words can have a more complex structure

· Inflection: such as ‘plural’ in the case of nouns, and ‘past tense’ in the case of verbs.

· S , er , ed , ing , est , 's

· Nouns boy plural (boys), genitive (boy’s, boys’)

Verbs live, write S.P.T (lives, write), P.T (lived, wrote), ing

participle (living , writing)

Adjectives dark comparative (darker), superlative (darkest)

Adverbs soon comparative (sooner), superlative (soonest)

· derivation usually involve adding an affix

§ a prefix : a morpheme attached to the beginning of a word

§ a suffix : a morpheme attached to the end of a word

ü derivation is different from inflection because inflection does not change the identity of a word.

· Compounding: Words that are compounds contain more than one stem

- noun + noun: chair + man , girl + friend

- verb + noun: cook + book , guess + work

- adjectives + nouns: blue + bird , flat + fish

- noun + adjective: head + long , water + tight

Second lecture

Lexical words : There are four : nouns, lexicalverbs, adjectives, and adverbs.

o To decide what class a word belongs to, apply tests:

Morphological , Syntactic , Semantic:

Nouns :common nouns , proper nouns

suffixes for plural numbers, and '' s'' for genitive .

uncountable Nouns (gold, information)

Nouns contain more than one morpheme compound nouns (clothes + line)

nouns with derivational suffixes (sing+ er , friend+ship, bright+ness)

v Morphological:Nouns have inflectional suffixes for plural numbers, and for genitive case: one book----- two books; Sarah’s book. Many nouns, however, are uncountable, and cannot have a plural form (e.g. gold, information).

Nouns quite often contain more than one morpheme ( compound nouns (clothes + line) – nouns with derivational suffixes (sing+ er , friend+ship , bright+ness )

v Syntactic:Nouns can occur as the head of a noun phrase or can be modified bymany kinds of words both before and after them

v Semantic:physical entities ( people, objects, substances) book, friend, iron.

abstract entities, such as freedom, wish, friendship.

Lexical Verbs: normal verbs , Auxiliary verbs ,

v Morphological:Lexical verbs

complex verbs : bring up, rely on, look forward to, itemize, soften.

v Syntactic :as a single-word acting as the central part of the clause , or the final

v Semantic:Lexical verbs denote actions, processes, and states of affairs that happen or exist in time.

Adjectives dark, heavy, eager, and guilty

v Morphological:–er ( comparative), and –est (superlative): dark ---- darker ---- darkest.

Adjectives can be complex in morphology (derived adjectives e.g. acceptable, forgetful, influential)

Adjectives can be compound adjectives : ( color-blind , home-made, ice-cold).

v Syntactic:as the head of an adjective phrase: ( very dark) (eager to help) (guilty of a seriouscrime).

Adjectives and adjective phrases are most commonly used as modifiers preceding the head of a noun phrase or predicative following the verb in clauses

v Semantic:Adjectives describe the qualities of people, things, and abstractions: aheavybox, he isguilty, the situation isserious.

Adverbs: Words such as now, there, usually, and finally are adverbs.

v Morphological: Many adverbs are formed from adjectives by adding the suffix –ly.

Others have no such ending: however, just. A few adverbs allow comparative and superlative forms like those for adjectives: soon --- sooner --- soonest; fast --- faster --- fastest.

v Syntactic: Adverbs occur as head of adverb phrases: ( very noisily) ( more slowly than I had expected). Adverbs, with or without their own modifiers, are often used as modifiers of an adjective or another adverb: (really old) ( very soon). Otherwise, they can act as adverbials in the clause ( I’ll see you soon again).

v Semantic: As modifiers, adverbs most often express the degree of a following adjective or adverb: ( totally wrong)( right now). As elements of clauses ( adverbials),

- They can modify an action, process, or state, by expressing such notions as time, place, and manner. ( So I learn German quite quickly) ( She was here earlier today)

Comparing lexica word classes in use

- Nouns and verbs are clearly the most common types of words overall.

- Conversation has a high density of verbs, unlike informative writing such as news and academic prose, which has a high density of nouns.

- Adjectives are linked to nouns, because they most frequently modify nouns.

- Adverbs are linked to verbs.

Third Lecture

Function Words :

1- Determiners:Determiners normally precedes nouns..

- ‘the’ ‘a’ or ‘an’ ( a book).

- Demonstrative determiners (this book, that book)

- Possessive determiners: ( my book, your book, her book…etc).

- Quantifiers: specify ( every book, some books).

2- Pronouns:pronouns fill the position of a noun or a whole noun phrase.

1) Personal pronouns:

2) Demonstrative pronouns:(This is Bay city) ( I like those)

3) Reflexive pronouns: refer back to a previous noun phrase ( I taught myself)

4) Reciprocal pronouns:. ( Yeah they know each other pretty well).

5) Possessive pronouns:

6) Indefinite pronouns: have a broad, (everything, nobody, someone). ( all, some, many)

7) Relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that) introduce a relative clause. ( I had more friends that were boys) ( He’s the guy who told me about this).

8) Interrogative pronouns: ask questions about unknown entities. ( what did he say) ( I just wonder who it was).

3- Auxiliary Verbs:Primary Auxiliary & Modal Auxiliary.

Auxiliary verbs precede the main or lexical verb in a verb phrase: (will arrive, has arrived, is arriving, may be arriving).

Primary Auxiliaries verbs : be, have, and do.

The auxiliary have is used to form perfect aspect (e.g. I’ve done that once).

The auxiliary be is used for the progressive aspect or ‘continuous’ aspect(e.g. She was thinking about me).

The auxiliary do is used in negative statements and in questions ( known as do insertion (e.g. Did he sell it?) (This doesn’t make sense).

Modal Auxiliaries: The modals are: will, can, shall, may, must, would, could, should, might.

4- Prepositions: are linking words that introduce prepositional phrases.

Most prepositions are short, invariable forms ( about, after, around, as, at by, down, for, from, into, like, of, off, on, round, since, than, to towards, with, without).

Complex prepositions consist of multi-word units ( such as, as for, except for, apart from, because of, instead of, out of, regardless of, according to, due to, owing to, by means of, in spite of, in addition to, with regard to, as far as, as well as).

5- Adverbial Particles: are a small group of words with a core meaning of motion. (about, across, along with, around, aside*, away*, back*, by, down, forth*, home*, in, off, on, out, over, past, round, through, under, up. All of these forms except those marked * can also be prepositions. Adverbial particles are closely linked to verbs.

The generally follow verbs, and are closely bound to them in meaning:

go away, come back, put (something) on, etc. They are used to build phrasal verbs, such as the following: (Come on, tell me about nick) ( I just broke down in tears when I saw the letter) ( Susan rarely turned on the television set). They are also used to build extended prepositional phrases, where a particle precedes thee preposition. ( We were going back to the hotel when it happened).

6- Conjunctions : There are two types Coordinators and subordinators.

Coordinators are used to indicate relationship between two units such as phrases or clauses. ( and, but, and or. ) Correlative coordinators ( both X and Y) ( not only X but also Y) ( either X or Y) ( neither X nor Y).

Subordinators:are linking words.