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المحاضرة الأولى :

( Linguistics & applied linguistics )

Linguistics:The discipline that studies the nature and use of language

Applied linguistics:The application of linguistic theories, methods, and findings to the elucidation of language problems that have arisen in other domains

Linguistic competence:Speakers’ ability to produce and understand an unlimited number of utterances, including many that are novel and unfamiliar

First & second language

First Language:(native language) – the first language learned by a child, usually the language of his/her home

Second/foreign language: a language learned subsequent to a speaker’s native language

Acquisition and learning

Acquisition:the gradual development of ability in a first or second language by using it naturally in communicative situations

Learning:the conscious process of accumulating knowledge, in contrast to acquisition

Ways to describe language

Language consists of

1) Phonology: the study of the sound system of a language

2) Morphology: the study of the structure of words

3) Syntax: the sentence structure of the language. Grammar is the set of rules governing the use of the language so that people can communicate meaningfully and consistently with each other

4) Semantics: the study of the meanings communicated through language

Grammar-Translation Approach

- The teacher does not have to be able to speak the target language.

Direct Approach

- The teacher must be a native speaker or have native-like proficiency in the target language.

Reading Approach

- The teacher does not need to have good oral proficiency in the target language.

Audiolingualism Approach

- The teacher must be proficient only in the structures, vocabulary that he/she is teaching since learning activities are carefully controlled.

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المحاضرة الثانية :

Situational Approach

The spoken language is primary

New items (lexical and grammatical) are introduced and practiced in real situations (e.g. at the post office, at the bank, at the dinner table)

Cognitive Approach

Language learning is viewed as rule acquisition, not habit formation

Instruction is often individualized; learners are responsible for their own learning

Errors are viewed as inevitable, something that should be used constructively in the learning process

Affective-Humanistic Approach

Respect is emphasized for the individual ( each student, the teacher) and for his/her feelings

Communication that is meaningful to learner is emphasized

The teacher is viewed as a counselor of facilitator

Comprehension-Based Approach

Listening comprehension is very important and is viewed as the basic skill that will allow speaking, reading, and writing to develop spontaneously over time given the right conditions

Learners should begin by listening to meaningful speech and by responding nonverbally in meaningful ways before they produce and language themselves

Learners should not speak until they feel ready to do so; this results in better pronunciation than when the learner is forced to speak immediately

Learners progress by being exposed to meaningful input that is just one step beyond their level of competence

Errors correction is seen as unnecessary and perhaps even counterproductive; the important thing is that the learners can understand and can make themselves understood

If the teacher is not a native speaker ( or near-native), appropriate materials such as audio/visual tapes must be available to provide the appropriate input for the learners

Communicative Approach

The goal of language teaching is learner’s ability to communicate in the target language

The content of a language course will include semantic notions and social functions, not just linguistic structures

Summary

a. Cognitive Approach: Language is rule-governed cognitive behavior ( not habit formation)

b. Affective-Humanistic Approach: Learning a foreign language is a process of self-realization and of relating to other people

c. Comprehension Approach: Language acquisition occurs if and only if the learner comprehends meaningful input

d. Communicative Approach: The purpose of language ( and thus the goal of language teaching) is communication

Approaches, Methods, & Techniques

- Approach: An approach to language teaching is something that reflects a certain model or research paradigm- a theory if you like.

- Method: is a set of procedures, i.e., a system that spells out rather precisely how to teach a language

- Technique: is a classroom device or activity(e.g. imitation and repetition)

Final Thought

What is the solution for ESL/EFL teacher, given the abundance of current and future approaches? The only way to make wise decisions is to learnmore about the specific approaches/methods/techniques available. There are also three other issues the teacher has to take into consideration to make a good decision concerning the choice of an approach or method ( or a combination of both):

1. Assess students needs ( why and for what purpose?
2. Examine instructional constraints ( time, class size, and materials).
3. Determine needs, attitudes, and aptitudes of individual students to the extent that is possible.

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المحاضرة الثالثة :

Error Analysis

- Making errors is inevitable part of learning

- Studying learners’ errors serve tow major purposes

1. it provides data from which inferences about the nature of the language learning process can be made

2. it indicates to teachers and curriculum developers which part of the target language students have most difficulty producing correctly and which error types detract most from a learner’s ability to communicate effectively

Major Findings of Error Analysis Studies

- Error analysis studies claim that the majority of learner’s errors were intralingual ( caused by the structure of L2) rather than interlangual ( caused by L1 transfer).

- Causes of errors:

1. Language transfer
2. Intralingual factors
3. Transfer of training
4. Learning strategies

- Classification of errors:

1. Omission, addition, substitution, word order
2. Errors of phonology, morphology, syntax, and vocabulary

Shortcomings of Error Analysis

1. Stressing on learner’s errors
2. Overstressing of production data
3. Focusing on specific language rather than viewing universal aspects of languages.

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المحاضرة الرابعة :

Interlanguage Theory

- Interlanguage is the type of language produced by second language learners who are in the process of learning language. It refers to a system that has a structurally intermediate status between the native language and the target language

The Main Premises of Interlanguage Theory

1.The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production

2.The learner’s grammar is permeable

3. The learner’s competence is transitional

4.The learner’s competence is variable

5.Interlanguage development reflects the operation of cognitive learning strategies

6.Interlanguage use can also reflect the operation of communication strategies

7. Interlanguage systems may fossilize. Fossilization refer to the tendency of many learners to stop developing their interlanguage grammar in the direction of the target language

The development of Interlanguage

1. Language transfer: Interfering; interlingual transfer from L1; borrowing patterns from the native language. Such as using ‘ the book of john’ instead of john’s book

2. Transfer of training:Some elements of the interlanguage may result from specific features of the learning. For example, students make some errors because of a misleading explanation from the teacher……. incorrect presentation of a structure

3.Strategies of second language learning: These strategies are part of the context of learning; resulting from a specific approach to the material to be learned

4.Communication strategies: expressing meanings using the words and grammar which are already known by a learner with limited knowledge of the target language. Such as using ‘That’s my building. I live there’ instead of ‘ That’s the building where I live’

5.Overgeneralization: The extension of using grammatical rules beyond its expected uses (e.g. mans instead men)

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